Biology/10th /10-11 Reproduction

Q.1 What is reproduction and what are its types?

Ans. Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce young ones of their own kind to
continue their existence. Reproduction is one of the characteristic feature of living organisms.
Living organisms reproduce by many methods which have been broadly classified into two types:
i. Sexual reproduction ii. Asexual reproduction.
i. Sexual reproduction:- It is that type of reproduction in which new individuals (offspring’s one )
are produced by the fusion of male and female gametes contributed by two parents.
ii. Asexual reproduction:- It is that type of reproduction in which new individuals (offspring’s ones)
are formed with out the fusion of male and female gametes. In asexual reproduction only one parent
is involved in the formation of new individuals.
Q. What are the different types of asexual reproduction.
Ans. Asexual reproduction takes place in the following ways.
i. Fission.
ii. Budding
iii. Spore formation.
iv. Fragmentation.
v. Vegetative propagation.
i. Fission:- It is the process in which the parent body (cell) divides to form daughter cells which
grow as new individuals. The process of fission is most common in unicellular organisms such as
bacteria and protozoa. The process of fission is of two main types:
a. Binary fission b. Multiple fission.
a. Binary fission:- It is a type of asexual reproduction in which the body of a unicellular
organism divides into two daughter cells which grow as new individuals. This type of reproductions
is found in Amoeba, paramecium, Euglena, etc.
In some organisms like amoeba, the splitting of the two cells during division can take place
in any plane. However, in some organisms like leishmama (which have a whip like structure at one
end of the cell) binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to these structures.
b. Multiple fission:- It is a type of asexual reproduction in which the body of a unicellular
organism divides into many daughter cells. This type of reproduction is found in plasmodium (a
malarial parasite) and in case of Amoeba under unfavorable conditions.
ii. Budding:- In budding a small bulb like outgrowth develops on the body of an organism called
bud. The bud develops into a tiny individual and when fully mature detaches from the parental in
body and becomes a new independent individual. This type of reproduction takes place in
coelenterates (hydra), sponges (scypha) and yeasts.
iii. Spore formation :- Spores are the specialized cells capable of growing into a new individual.
The spores are formed in a sac like structure called sporangium. The spores are liberated from the
sporangium which when fall on a suitable substratum grow into new individuals. Spore formation is
most common in algae, bacteria and fungi.
iv. Fragmentation:- In fragmentation the body of an organism divides into two or more fragments
and each fragment grows into a new individual. In case of plants, it is found in algae and in case of
animals it is found in tapeworm.

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v. Vegetative Propagation:- This is the most common type of asexual reproduction in plants. In
vegetative propagation new individual plants are formed from the vegetative parts such as stem,
branches, roots and leaves of the parent plant.
Q. Write two advantages of Vegetative Propagation.
Ans:- 1. It helps in the propagation of those plants that have lost the capacity to produce seeds
such as banana, orange, rose and jasmine.
2. The plants produced by vegetative reproduction are genetically similar enough to the parent plant
to have all its characteristics.
Q. What are the different types of vegetative reproduction?
Ans:- The various types of vegetative reproduction are:-
i. Grafting:- It involves joining together the parts of two different plants in such as way
that they can live as one plant. In this process, the cutting of a superior plant is put on the stem of an
inferior quality plant having root system. The plant that contributes its root system is called stock
and the plant which contributes its shoot system is called scion. This method is used to produce
superior quality of plants which can not be achieved by sexual reproduction. It is co,mmon method
in mangoes, apples, peaches, etc.
ii. Cutting:- Small (6-10 cm long) pieces of stem are cut and their free ends are cut to
form cuttings. These cuttings are placed slightly vertical in the soil. In this way each cutting
develops into a complete plant. Examples are jasmine, rose, lavender, etc.
iii. Layering:- In this process one or more shoots of a plant are bent close to the ground and
covered with moist soil but the free end of the branch is kept uncovered. After few days roots start
to arise from the part of the branch which is covered with soil. This part of the branch with its
newly arisen roots is manually detached from the main branch of the parent plant and is planted to
grow as a new complete plant. It is common method of vegetative reproduction in ornamental
plants like jasmine, rose plants, etc.
iv. Adventitious buds:- The leaves of the plants like Bryophyllum also help in vegetative
reproduction. Their leaves bear buds at the notches of their margins. When this leaf falls on the
moist ground, each bud develops into a new plant. Thus adventitious buds formed on the margin of
leaf develop into a new plant.
v. Tissue culture:- In this method a small piece of tissue from the vegetative part of the
plant is separated and placed in an artificial medium where it divides rapidly into a small group of
un-organized cells called callus. The callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones
for growth and differentiation to form plantlets. The plantlets are then placed in the soil to develop
into mature plants. This technique is commonly used for ornamental plants e.g. asparagus,
chrysanthemum, etc.
Q. Explain the process of sexual reproduction in plants?
Ans. The sexual reproduction in plants involves three main
phases: namely formation of microspores and ovule
pollination and fertilization.
1. Formation of microspores:- The microspores are
formed in the microsporangia from microspore mother cells, which
are present in Anther. The microspores are formed by the
process of meiosis. The partly germinated microspore is called pollen
grain.

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2. Pollination:- The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the same or another
flower is called pollination. The pollen grains are transferred by wind water or insects from anther
to stigma. The pollen grain absorbs water on the stigma and divides in to two cells namely a
vegetative cell and a generative cell. The nucleus of the generative cell divides into two nuclei. The
vegetative cell develops into a tube which protrudes through style into ovary containing ovule. The
two nuclei or male gametes pass through pollen tube into ovule where one of them fuses with the
egg nucleus forming zygote and another one fuses with secondary nucleus which is diploid. The
fusion of one male gamete and egg cell gives rise to formation of embryo while as fusion of another
male gamete and secondary nucleus give rise to formation of endosperm which provides nutrition to
developing embryo.
Formation of fruit:- The fertilized ovules secrete auxins which cause the ovary to grow into a
fruit. The ovary can be made to grow into a fruit with out fertilization by the artificial spray of
auxins this process is called parthenocarpy.
Q. With the help of diagram describe the
structure of male reproductive system in
humans.
Ans . The male reproductive system consists of a
scrotum, a pair of testis, vasa efferentia, a pair of
epididymes, a pair of vasa deferentia, a pair of
efacuratary ducts, urethra and penis.
Scrotum:- It is a pouch of pigmented skin
arising from the lower abdominal wall and
hanging between the legs. The testes originate in the
abdominal cavity but latter during the seventh
month of development descend into the respective
scrotal [Link] scrotum acts as a thermoregulatar, maintaing the testes at a temperature 2 o lower
than that of the body.
Testis:- The testes are soft, smooth, pinkish oval organs about 4-5 cm long, 2.5 cm wide and
3cm thick. Testes are formed of semniferous tubules which consists of sbermelogenic cells and
sertoli cells. The former becomes sperms while the latter provides nutrient to the sperms.
The semniferous tubules also contain the interstitial or Leybig’s cells which secrete the male sex
hormone called testosterone.
Epididymis:- The epididymis is a long tube attached to the hind surface of the testis. Maturation
of sperms and their fertilization capacity occurs in head of the epididymis and are stored in the tail
part of Epidydymis. The sperms not ejaculated are reabsorbed in the vas deferens.
Vasa Efferentia:- The vasa efferentia bear cilia to aid in sperm transport.
Vas deferentia:- It is about 40 cm long narrow and tubular structure which starts from epididymis
and joins the seminal vesicles to form ejaculatory duct. Vas deferentia conducts the sperms by
peristalsis.
Ejaculatory ducts:- These are about 2cm long thin walled tubes which open in to the urethra.

Urethra:-It is the urinary duct leading from the bladder. It carries urine as well as sperms. It is
about 20 cm long.
Penis:- Penis is a male couplatory organ through which urethra pass. It is used for depositing semen
into the vagina of the female.
Accessory sex glands:- In man there are three types of sex glands namely:
1. Seminal vesicles:- These are a pair of glands present between rectum of urinary bladder.
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2. Prostate glands:-It is a single large sized lobulated gland present just blow the urinary bladder.
3. Cow pars glands:-These are a pair of white pea sized glands present at the base of penis.
Q. With the help of diagram describe the structure of female reproductive system.
Ans. The female reproductive system consists of a
pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tubes
(oviducts) uterus and vagina.
Ovaries:- The ovaries are the
primary sex organs of the female. They are
about the size and shape of an almond. Each
ovary is connected by ovarian ligament to the
uterus. The ovaries remain attached to the
body wall by ligament. The ovaries
produce female gamete ova and female sex
hormones Estrogen and progesterone. The
ovaries are externally lined by germinal
epithelium. Ovaries are two in number and
each ovary produces eggs alternately.
Fallopian tubes:- These are a pair
of elongated, ciliated muscular and tubular
structures extending from just close to ovaries to uterus. The outer part of each fallopian tube laying
close to ovary has a wide aperture called ostium and a number of finger like processes called
fimbriae to receive the ovum released from ovary.
Functions of Fallopian Tube:- Fallopian tube is the site of fertilization also called
fertilization canal. It conducts the Zygote towards uterus by its cilliary action.
Uterus:- It is a muscular pear shaped structure present between urinary bladder and rectum.
Its internal linings is highly glandular and vascular and is called endometrium. Its lower and narrow
part is called cervix which opens into vagina.
Function:- It is the site of foetal development.
Vagina:- It is about 7.5cm long and is adopted for receiving penis, allowing menstrual flow
and serves as the birth canal.
Q. Describe the human female menstrual cycle OR
Why does menstruation occur?
Ans. The menstrual cycle in humans lasts for 28 days. The days are numbered from first day of blood
flow in the menstrual period. The menstrual cycle consists of 3 phases which are as described
below:

a. Follicular (Proliferating) phase:- This phase lasts for about 14 days. It comprises the following
stages.
i. F.S.H. The anterior pituitary lobe secretes follicle stimulating hormone (F.S.H) which
stimulates the growth of the selected primary ovarian follicle and maturation of the primary Oocyte
in this follicle. F.S.H also stimulates follicle cells to secrete estradiol
ii. Estradiol inhibits the secretion of F.S.H and stimulates the secretion of leuteinising hormone
(L.H) from the anterior pituitary.
iii. L.H. cause ovulation and it occurs after about 14 days.
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iv. Estradial prepares uterus for implantation and thus formation of endometrium occurs in
uterus. Fallopian tube gets thickened and its ciliary movement increases. These changes
prepare the fallopian tube for convening the ovum into the uterus.
b. Luteal or secretary phase: This phase lasts for 10 days. Progesterone and estradial
secretion takes place by the stimulation of L.H and prolaction to empty graffian follicle.
Progesterone maintains pregnancy. i.e. implantation of the foetus and stimulates endometrial glands
to secrete a nutrient fluid for the foetus,
c. Menstrual or Bleeding phase:- This phase lasts for about 4 days. If fertilization does
not occur, the secondary Oocyte undergoes autolysis and progesterone inhibits the release of LH
from pituitary and a consequent fall in the progesterone level in the blood. The uterine lining dries
due to progesterone deficiency and is sloughed off, blood vessels rupture and this causes bleeding.
Q. Write short note on: (a) Gametogenesis (b) Spermatogenesis (c) Spermiogenesis
Ans:- (a) Gametogenesis:- It is the formation of haploid gametes from diploid cells of germinal
epithelium ( the outer most covering of gonads) i.e. testes and ovaries. The gametes in males are
called sperms and in females are called eggs. The formation of sperms is called spermatogenesis
and the formation of eggs or (ova) is called Oogenesis.
(b) Spermatogenesis:- It is the formation of sperms from the germinal epithelium present in the
testes.
( c) Spermiogenesis:- The formation of motile sperms from non-motile spermatids is called
spermiogenesis. In spermiogenesis the weight of the spermatids is reduced to form active sperms
Q. Phases of spermatogenesis:-
Ans:-Spermatogenesis involves the two phases.
i. Formation of spermatids ii. Spermiogenesis.
Formation of spermatids:- The cells of the germinal epithelium which produce sperms are known
as primary germ cells or primordial cells. The primordial cells pass through the following three
phases for the formation of spermatids.
1. Multiplication Phase:- The undifferentiated germ cells or primordial cells multiply
(increase in number) by repeated mitotic divisions. The cells formed by these divisions are known
as spermatogonia. The spermatogonia are diploid cells containing 2sets of chromosomes in them
represented by (2x)
ii. The Growth phase:- In growth phase the spermatogonial cells accumulate more nutrients
and grow in size. Now these are known as primary spermatocytes.
iii. The maturation phase:- In maturation phase each primary spermatocyte undergoes
two meiotic divisions one after another. The second meiotic division is reductional division
reducing the chromosome no. half (X) in each spermatocyte. By the first meiotic division two
secondary spermatocytes are formed. By the second meiotic division occurring in each secondary
spermatocytes two spermatids are formed.

Q. What is fertilization? What arte its various types?

Ans:- Fertilization:- It is the fusion of male and female gametes of all sexually reproducing
organisms. Its main idea was enunciated by Leevwon Hoek in 1683. In this process the penetration
of a spermatozoon into ovum activates the egg to start the development, while the fusion of their
pronuclei (amphimixis) results in restoring the diploid (2n) chromosome number.
Type of Fertilisation”-
a. External Fertilization. b. Internal Fertilization.
a. External fertilization:- The type of fertilization where gametes fuse outside the body of a parent is
known as external fertilization e.g. in fishes and amphibians.
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b. Internal Fertilization:- The type of fertilization where gametes fuse inside the body of a parent is
known as internal fertilization e.g. in mammals, birds and reptiles.
Q. What means puberty? What changer occur due to puberty in boys and girls?
Ans:- Puberty:- The age at which the sex hormones or gametes begin to be produced and the boy
and girl become sexually mature is called puberty. Boys attain puberty at the age of 13 to 14 years
while girls reach puberty at a comparatively lower age of 10 to 12 years.
Changes due to puberty in Boys:-
1. Growth of thick hair on the face.
2. Cracking of the voice.
3. Muscle development.
4. Sperm formation and development of sexual desire.
Changes due to puberty in Girls:-
1. Growth and development of reproductive organs (Ovaries, Fallopian tube, Uterus, etc.)
2. Development of breasts.
3. Starting of menstrual cycle.
4. The broadening of hips and development of sexual desire.
Q. How is DNA copied in cells? (DNA Copying)
Ans. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is copied in the cells by the process known as DNA replication.
During this process the two strands of DNA get separated from each other and the new strands get
attached to each parent strand formed from its building blocks called nucleotides.
(Process of DNA replication)

(Daughter Cells)

Q. Importance of DNA Copying :

Ans . DNA replication helps in maintaining the same number of chromosomes in the daughter cells as
that in mother cells.
1. Some times DNA replication helps in the formation of useful mutations.
2. The variations caused due to DNA replication causes microevolution. i.e. formation of sub species
or varieties

Q. What will happen if an organism reproduces through spores.

Ans. The spores help an organism to survive under unfavourable conditions such as draught and absence
of suitable substratum. The spores accumulate reserve food and develop a thick wall around them
which helps them to pass through unfavourable conditions on return of favourable conditions these
spore germinate and form the new individuals. Thus preventing the organism from extinction.
Q. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual?
Ans. Variation is beneficial to the species as it enables a species for its survival. A favourable variation
makes an organism to live better in a changed environment. e.g. A population of heat resistant
bacteria in temperature of the water survives, but if the temperature of water increases by global
warming most other bacteria would die. So, it is not necessarily true that a variation is beneficial to
the individual always.
Q. How does binary fission differ from multiple fission and multiple fission:
Binary fission Multiple fission
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1. The nucleus of the parent cell 1. The nucleus of the parent cell undergoes
divides into two daughter nuclei. repeated divisions to produce many daughter
nuclei
2. It may be irregular (amoeba), 2. Whole body divides into pieces.
Longitudinal (Euglena) or transverse
(paramecia)
3. Cytoplasmic division is followed by 3. Nuclear division is followed by cytoplasmic
nuclear division division.
4. It occurs in unicellular organisms 4. It takes place is unicellular organisms under
under favourable conditions unfavourable conditions.
Q. How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores?
Ans. Spores have thick walls that protect them from unfavourable conditions like lack of food, lack of
water and extreme temperature, such spores are produced in large numbers. They germinate when
favourable conditions return. Thus, an organism gets benefited if it reproduces through spores.
Q. Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms can not give rise to new individuals
through regeneration?
Ans. Complex organisms have highly differentiated tissues and organs. In this case regeneration of
complex individual organism is difficult from a small piece of living cells.
Q. What are the advantages of artificial propagation?
Ans. Because of the following reasons:-
i. We get seedless plants by artificial propagation.
ii. Many plants can be grown from just one parent.
iii. We get a fully matured plants in very short time.
iv. To preserve the type of character that a plant breeder desires.
Q. Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of reproduction?
Ans. DNA copying is essential in the process of reproduction because it transmits the characters (traits)
from parent to offspring and carries information to create proteins which lead to body design of the
organism. If a similar individual has to be produced, the DNA should replicate to make an exact
copy of itself.

Q. How is the process of pollination different from fertilization?

Pollination Fertilization
1. It takes place by various pollinating 1. It takes place by the direct involvement
agencies like insects, birds, wind etc. of male and female organisms or by
artificial means.
2. It is the transfer of pollen grains 2. It is the fusion of male and female
into ovary gametes.
3. It occurs in plant kingdom only. 3. It occurs in plant and animal kingdoms.
Q. How does the embryo get nourishment inside the mother’s body?
Ans. The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called placenta.
This is a disc which is embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the
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tissue. On the mother’s side are blood spaces. This provides a large surface area for diffusion of
glucose, oxygen and other nutrients from the mother to the embryo.
Q What are the contraceptive methods taken to avoid pregnancy?
Ans. a. Creating a mechanical barrier so that the sperms do not reach the egg. This is done with a
condom which is worn around the penis or a similar device that is placed in the vagina.
b. Changing the hormonal balance of the body so that fertilization cannot occur. This is done with
the help of oral contraceptive pills.
c. Contraceptive device like loop or coper-T are placed in the uterus to prevent pregnancy.
d. Surgical methods like vasectomy in males and tubectomy in females.
Q What happens when the egg is not fertilized?
If the egg is not fertilized, it lives only for a day, Every month the uterus prepares itself to receive
the fertilized egg. The lining of the uterus becomes thick, spongy and richly supplied with blood. If
the egg is not fertilized, the lining breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood and mucous. It
usually lasts for 2-8 days. This process is called menstruation.
Q. What is pollination? Name its two types. How do they differ from each other?
Ans. The transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a carpel is called pollination.
Pollination is of two types namely self pollination and cross pollination
Self Pollination Cross Pollination
1. Transfer of pollen grains to the stigma 1. Transfer of pollen grains from anther to
of same flower or another flower on the the stigma of a flower of another similar or
same plant. different plant is called cross pollination.
2. External pollinating agency is not 2. Wind, Water birds and insects are
required. required as pollinating agency.
3. Slight variation occurs in new 3. Much more variation occurs in new
individuals individuals
Q. What are the hermaphrodite organisms?
Ans. Those organisms which contain both male and female reproductive organs are called hermaphrodite
or bisexual organisms. E.g. earthworm, tapeworm, fasciola etc.
Q. What are oviparous organisms?
Ans. Those organisms which lay eggs are called oviparous organisms. e.g. all birds, reptiles and the
order monotremata in mammals.

Q. Distinguish between external fertilization and internal fertilization.

Ans.
External fertilization Internal fertilization
1. Fertilization of egg with the sperm 2. Fertilization occurs inside the female
occurs outside the body. reproductive system.
2. Water is a medium for fusion of 2. Secretions from sex organs helps in the
gametes. fusion of gametes.
3. Large number of eggs are fertilized 3. Few eggs are fertilized.
with the semen of male
Q. What are viviparous organisms?
Ans. Those organisms which reproduce by giving birth to their young ones are called viviparous
organisms.
Q. Differentiate between scion an stock.
Ans.
Scion Stock
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1. The part of stem which is placed on 1. The stem which is fixed in soil is called
the top of another stem is called scion stock.
2. The parent plant usually has poor root 2. The parent plant usually has poor
system characters of which the desired scion is
used.
3. It has desired characters of good 3. It has extensive absorbing capacity good
vegetative growth, flower and of fruit root systems
production
Q. What are the salient features of sexual reproduction?
Ans. The salient features of sexual reproduction are:
1. It involves two parents mostly but some times uniparental ( bisexual organisms fasciola, earthworm
etc. )
2. Haploid gametes are produced by both male and female by the process of meiosis.
3. The fusion of male and female gametes (sperm and egg) is called fertilization. The male gamete is
usually smaller and is known as sperm. The female gamete is a bit larger and is known as egg. The
fertilization results in the formation of a zygote which is diploid.
4. The zygote divides repeatedly to form a multicellular organism.
Q. What are the Silent Features of Asexual reproduction?
Ans. i. There is no formation and fusion of gametes.
ii. Only one parent is involved in the formation of new individuals.
iii. Multiplication of cells is rapid and enormous
Q. Writ two advantages of sexual reproduction.
i. Sexual reproduction promotes diversity among the offspring because variations
from two parents are coming together.
ii. Progeny of sexual reproduction have more chance of survival because of the variations.
New combinations of characters thus plays important role in the evolution of species.

Notes for all classes are available

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