5.

Process Instrumentation & Instrumentation diagrams

1. Explain indicating and signalling instruments?
INDICATING AND SIGNALING INSTRUMENTS
• An indicating instrument is used when only the present value of the variable has meaning and the
past record is of no consequence.
Indicating scales are of three types:
• the eccentric scale,
• the concentric scale, and the
• linear scale.
• The eccentric scale, is commonly used on mechanical instruments such as pressure thermometers, flow
meters, and pressure gages.
• The scale length is usually about 8 in. but may be much smaller.
• The concentric scale is used for nearly all kinds of instruments.

•
• The scale length is usually about 25 in. in the precision-type instrument.
• In simple dial-type pressure gages and thermometers the scale length may be as small as 3 in.
• The linear scale is commonly used only on the potentiometer-resistance-thermometer-type instrument.
• For such instruments an indicator is made simply by omitting the strip chart, chart drive, and pen.
• Galvanometer type milli voltmeters employ a linear scale in a curved form.
• The use of the various indicating instruments is generally restricted, because a free choice of scale types
is not possible

•
• For readability the concentric scale generally offers the greatest scale length in the smallest space
• Signaling instruments are very effective when it is only necessary to indicate that the variable is within
certain limits.
• This is accomplished by electric contacts or switches suitably operated from a measuring means such as
a thermometer pressure spring, liquid-level float, or thermocouple pyrometer.
• Signal lights or horns are used for visual or audible signal.
• Signaling systems should be positive; that is, a system should require an operator to look for a specific
combination of signals before performing an operation.
• An example of poor signaling is to permit process operation to proceed only when no signal is evident.
• This procedure is unsafe, because no signal may simply mean that the power is off.
The common signalling systems are:
 • The “hi-low” system, which is useful for indicating when a variable has passed a given point (This is
sometimes used without the high or the low);
• The “hi-low-neutral” system, which is widely used to indicate that a process operation may proceed only
when the amber light is on;
• The "5-position" system, which provides more information on the value of the variable.

•
• Some process operations may proceed when the amber light only is on, and some operations may
proceed when the amber and either red or green lights are on.

2. How the Readings of the instruments are transmitted ,Write about pneumatic and electric
transmission ?
Transmission of Instrument Readings
• It is very often necessary to measure a variable at one point and to indicate its value at another point
located a considerable distance from the first.
• The distances involved vary from a few feet up to several thousand feet
• For mechanical instruments, transmission of readings must be considered at distances greater than 50 ft,
because the additional measuring lag and the possibility of ambient-temperature errors increase rapidly
with distance.
• The manometer differential-pressure instrument (as in flow meters) should not be used with connecting
lines longer than about 50 ft.
• Long lines cause considerable difficulty with spurious liquid heads, and the resulting errors may be
large.
• A pressure-spring thermometer with a capillary greater than 150 ft in length is costly, and the instrument
is then subject to ambient-temperature errors.
• Pressure gage connecting lines should be short, because long lines introduce considerable damping.
• Pneumatic transmission Is exemplified by the pressure thermometer with pneumatic transmission, the
pneumatic differential-pressure transmitter, the pneumatic liquid-level transmitter, and the specific-
gravity transmitter.
• Pneumatic transmission is generally operated on transmitted pressures of about 0 to 20 psig.
• The receiver is simply a pressure gage of 0 to 20 psig calibration.
• Actual calibration can then be made in terms of temperature, flow, liquid level, or whatever variable is
desired.
• Practically the only limitation to the distance between transmitter and receiver in pneumatic
transmission is the lag caused by the resistance and volume of the connecting tubing.
• Generally the tubing is standard ⅜ or ¼ in. (outside-diameter) copper tubing.
• The lag caused by the tubing results from the resistance, and the volume and tubing up to ½ in. diameter
has much less lag than tubing smaller than ¼ in.
• The lag of transmission is relatively small up to 500 ft length.
• Pneumatic transmission can be used up to 2000 ft distance, providing the lag is reduced by all possible
means.
• To reduce lag to a minimum it is the practice to install booster pilots at intervals of 200 to 500 ft along
the transmission line.
• For electric transmission with electric instruments there is theoretically no limitation to distance between
measuring element and instrument.
• In practice, there is the additional resistance of long lines, which may reduce the sensitiveness of
measurement.
• In temperature measurement long connecting lines may make accurate ambient-temperature
compensation difficult
• Electric transmission is illustrated by the inductance-bridge system used in the differential-pressure
transmitter, the specificgravity meter, the rotameter transmitter, the area-meter transmitter, and. the
viscosity meter.
• Electric transmission can be considered inherent in such instruments as the thermocouple pyrometer, the
resistance thermometer, and other electric measuring instruments where a reasonable distance may
separate the measuring element and the instrument.
• In inductance-bridge systems the only practical limitation to the distance of transmission is the
increasing dead zone caused by the reduced current in the bridge when line resistance is high.
• Distances up to 2000 ft have been covered satisfactorily.
• The lack of sensitivity of the instrument at long transmission distances is generally not too serious, so
long as the instrument is not an automatic controller.
• The electric-pulse system employs a constantly rotating cam at the transmitter to operate a switch.
• The percentage time on of the switch is determined by the position of the transmitter pen (or measuring
element).
• The duration of each cycle is determined by the speed of the rotating cam (usually once every 15 sec).
• Thus square-wave voltage is passed over the two connecting wires to the receiver.
• The receiver employs, in effect, a constantly rotating cam and an electromagnet operating the receiver
pen or pointer through a clutch mechanism.
• The pen or pointer is positioned by the difference in duration of the pulse received from the transmitter
and the pulse from the cam mechanism at the receiver.
• The system may operate over any twowire system (even a telephone circuit), and synchronization is not
required.
• The distance of transmission is therefore unlimited.
• With automatic controllers an additional element is introduced into the problem of transmission by the
consideration of the automatic-control circuit.
• When the transmission line is included in the automatic-control circuit, the measuring lag and the
controlling lag can become very great.
• This point is of consequence in pneumatic transmission.
• Two methods of arranging transmission when automatic control is involved.

•
• In the circuit on the left, the transmitter is located at the pipe line and transmits the flow readings to the
receiver located some distance away.
• The receiver is also a controller and transmits the control impulse back to the final control element.
 • Thus the transmission-line lag is included twice in the control circuit.
• In the circuit on the right of the instrument at the pipe line is a combined controller and transmitter.
• Automatic control is accomplished entirely at the pipe line without extending the control circuit over
great distances.
• Such an arrangement results in much better quality of control.
• In many applications there is little need for locating the controller at the control center.
• The industrial automatic controller is reliable in operation and generally requires no further adjustment
after its initial installation.
• Employing a controller-transmitter allows the receiver to be made a multiple-point recorder, and several
variables may be indicated on one chart .

3. What is a control center and what are basic requirements of control center
The Control Center
• Instrumentation equipment (instruments and automatic controllers) are generally grouped at one location
near the processing unit or manufacturing operation which they serve.
• This group of instrumentation equipment may be termed a control center since it controls or aids an
operator in controlling the process operation.
• The fundamental purpose of instrumentation is control of production quality or quantity .
• The control center may include only a single instrument “hung” on the process equipment, or it may
consist of hundreds of instruments and controllers housed in a separate building.
• The control center should be located near the processing operation for close cooperation between
process and control center.
• Because of the physical size of some plants, it is necessary to consider two types of plant and
instrumentation layout:
1. The central layout.
2. The unit layout.

4. Write short notes on 1. Central layout 2. Unit layout

2.
3. The instrumentation for all plant operations (material storage, material treatment, first refining, second
refining, separation, and product storage) is included in the control center.
4. The control center then becomes the operating center of the plant.
5. For a plant of any reasonable size the control center will probably include from 50 to 500 instruments.
6. At the control center the instrumentation equipment is conveniently grouped on panel boards around the
control-center room.
7. This room is completely enclosed, air-conditioned, properly lighted, and clean.
Advantages of central Layout
• The advantages of central layout are that the coordination of all plant operations is greatly facilitated and
service and maintenance of instrumentation equipment are quickly and easily accomplished.
• Separate control centers for each operation may be used because of the physical size of the whole plant
or because the operations require no coordination.
 • The control centers in this case may be located in separate enclosures, or, as is common when the plant
is inside a building, open panel boards are set up near each unit.
Control Center
• Is often employed in steel mills and cement plants, where extra protection from dirt and damage is
desirable.
• The house is usually constructed of concrete or cinder block with a window on one side.
• The window faces the process unit or operation floor, so that the process operator or supervisor may
readily check on various operations without entering the enclosure.

Unit Layout
• Unit layout has the advantages that the control center is close to the processing unit and coordination
between processing unit and control center is improved

5. Draw the instrumentation diagram of an evaporator and explain the controlling procedure?
INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM FOR EVAPORATOR
List of variables to be considered in this are:
a. Temperature of evaporator.
b. Concentration of feed.
c. Flow rate of feed.
d. Concentration of concentrate.
e. Vapour temperature.
f. Stream flow rate.

b.
c. Stream temperature and pressure.
d. Sun and wind conditions
e. Humidity of air, and
f. Ambient temperature and barometric pressure, etc.
VARIABLES TO BE AUTOMATICALLY CONTROLLED:
a. This depends on the efficiency of a particular operation
b. The variables that directly improves the operational efficiency may be selected for controlling
automatically
c. In this evaporation operation, the temperature of the vapors coming from evaporator directly effects the
operation, i.e., concentrating the dilute liquid.
 d. Hence the vapor temperature may be selected as automatically controlled variable.
Variables to be measured continuously:
a. Vapor temperature.
b. Flow rates of feed and steam Flow rate of product.
c. Concentration of feed etc.
d. Steam pressure and temperatures.
Variables to be measured periodically:
a. Temperature of feed.
b. Ambient temperature and pressure.
Variables need not be measured:
a. Sun and wind conditions.
b. Product temperature.

6. Draw an instrumentation diagram of a neutralization reaction in a reactor

Controlling PH in the reaction of soda ash with phosphoric acid to produce sodium phosphate.
Solution:
Various variables to be considered are.
a. Flow rates of phosphoric acid and soda ash.
b. The pH of the solution.

c.
d. Ambient temperature barometric pressure, humidity, sun and wind conditions.
e. Agitator speed
f. Temperature of the reactor.
g. Concentration of soda ash solution, and
h. Concentration of phosphoric acid solution, etc.
Variables to be Controlled Automatically:
a. The pH of the solution (final) which decides the conversion in the reaction.
b. Variables to be measured continuously:
a. Flow rate of soda ash .
b. Flow rate of phosphoric acid .
c. pH of the solution.
d. Concentrations of soda ash and phosphoric acid.
c. Variables to be measured periodically:
a. Temperature of the mixture in the reactor.
b. Agitator speed.
Variables need not be measured :
a. Sun and wind condition.
b. Ambient temperature and pressure.
 7. Write about the instrumentation diagrams.

Instrumentation diagram
• The purpose of an instrumentation diagram is to provide information quickly for use in process
analysis, production control, specification of equipment, and preparation of equipment
requisitions.
• The instrumentation diagram is constructed on the basis of a process flow diagram.
• It is intended to show the schematic layout of the process and plant equipment, together with
the instrumentation equipment used with the process.
• The instrumentation diagram does not show the scale (size) of the equipment or the technical
specifications of the equipment
• With regard to instrumentation equipment the diagram should show all major items; in some
cases minor items may be omitted.
• It should indicate:
• The variable being measured.
• Whether indication, recording or other service is required
• The auxiliary features of the instrument or controller.
• The type of connecting lines
• The approximate location of the point of measurement and point of control
• Which instrumentation is to be included in the control center and which is to remain at the
processing unit
• An instrumentation diagram for a rayon-slashing operation.
• Briefly, the rayon cloth passes through the size box at the left of the diagram where it
becomes saturated with size (Size can be considered similar to starch).
• The cloth then passes over the drying cylinders to the reel
• A moisture recorder-controller (MRC-1) measures the moisture of the cloth at the reel by
electric means and controls electrically the variable-speed drive unit.
• Separate non-indicating temperature controllers (TC) are used at each drying cylinder.
• The controllers are pressure-spring thermometers with pneumatic control.
• The level in the size box is controlled by a non-indicating controller (LC-1) with electrical
measuring means and pneumatic control.
• The temperature of the size box is controlled by a non-indicating pressure-spring thermometer
with pneumatic control.
• The drying-cylinder temperature controllers are mounted on the unit.
• The moisture controller and the size-temperature controller are located at the control center

8. Draw an instrumentation diagram of an Extraction Column

Composition Control in an Extraction Column
List of variables to be considered in this are
1. Temperature of Extraction operation, as the solubility of a solute is a function of temperature.
1. Concentrations of feed.
3. Flow rates of feed.
4. Concentration of concentrates i.e., Raffinate phase and Extract phase concentrations.
5. Pressure in the extractor.
6. Speed of the agitator.
7. Temperatures of feed liquids.
8. Sun and Wind conditions.
9. Humidity of air.
10. Ambient temperature and barometric pressure etc.
Variables to be automatically controlled
• In this extraction operation, Relative solubitity of a solute in different solvents is the basic principle.
• Usually the solute is more soluble in one of the solvents and less in the other.
• Hence by controlling the equilibrium composition of one of the phases of extraction, the efficiency of
total extraction operation can be improved.
• Hence the concentration of raffinate phase or the extract phase may be taken as the controlled variable
and it is controlled at the desired equilibrium level by manipulating the flow rate of feed or solvent.
Variables to be measured continuously
1. Temperature of extraction.
2. Flow rates of the raffinate phase and extract phase.
3. Concentrations of raffinate and extract phases.
4. Flow rates and concentrates of feed and solvent.
Variables to be measured periodically
• Speed of agitator.
• Temperatures of feed and solvent.
Variables need not be measured
Atmospheric pressure
2. Ambient temperature.
Automatically controlled Variables
1. Either the concentration of raffinate or the concentration of extract phase

9. Write short notes on recording instruments.

RECORDING INSTRUMENTS
• A recording instrument should be employed when a permanent record of the variable is desirable.
• A record is useful for three reasons.
1. The process operator may refer to the instrument to
observe the trend of the variable as a guide to process operation.
2. The record may be useful in locating trouble on the job.
3. The record may be required for reference to past performance.
• A recording should not be used when any of the foregoing functions are not required and when a
simple indicator will suffice.
• Recording instruments are more expensive and require more maintenance than indicating types.
• A recording instrument without a chart in place is not useful as an indicator.
1. Industrial instruments of the recording type employ two different styles of recording charts.
(1) The circular recording chart and
(2) The strip recording chart.
 10. Write short notes on strip chart and circular chart.
CIRCULAR RECORDING CHART
• A circular chart is used on almost every kind of industrial instrument - flow, temperature, pressure and
level.
• This chart is based essentially on polar coordinates with the exceptions that the “zero” is moved away
from the geometric center and the time lines are segments of an arc instead of straight lines.

•
• The chart is clamped at the geometric center and rotates about the center.
• The period of rotation of the circular chart is usually 8 hr, 24 hr or 7 days although nearly any speed of
rotation can be obtained by choosing a properly geared synchronous motor.
• Mechanical (spring-driven) clocks can also be used where electricity is not available or not desirable.
• Circular charts are made basically in two sizes an 8-in diameter and a 12-in diameter.
• The 12 in chart is by far the most common in industrial work.
• The 8-in chart is used in recording ambient temperature and humidity and in recording temperature of
heated vats and the like, where accuracy of reading is not essential.
• The 12-in circular chart has the following main advantages compared to a strip chart.
[Link] entire record of one process period (4,8,12 hr etc) is available at a glance.
[Link] chart length (about 22 in at 60 per cent calibration circumference) is available for one process period.
[Link] is easily filed for future reference
• It has the following limitations
[Link] values toward the center are difficult to read.
[Link] chart must be changed once every process period (4,8,12 hr, etc)
• The circular chart is most advantageously used to record a mildly fluctuating variable at about 50 per
cent of scale span where the process period is not greater than 24 hr.
• Circular charts are printed under carefully controlled temperature and humidity conditions on a high-
grade paper.
• Humidity variations under actual use causes the paper to expand and contract.
• Since the fibers in the chart paper run in one direction this causes the chart to expand or contract to
elliptical shape.
• The error in calibration is very small and is not corrected or compensated.
STRIP RECORDING CHART:
• A strip chart is generally used on the potentiometer-type instrument or on the resistance thermometer.
• The chart is driven from the supply roll to the re-roll by a synchronous motor.
• The speed of movement of the paper is usually given in inches per hour 1,2 and 4 in per hr being very
common.
• Speeds up to 20 in per hr are available.
 •
• The strip chart used with the recording-pyrometer and resistance thermometer type instruments has
rectangular coordinates and a width of approximately 10 inches.
• Strip recording charts for galvanometer type instruments are not so common in recent years.
• These are usually about [Link] in width and the time lines consist of arc segments instead of straight lines-
because the pen on such an instrument is arranged to move in an arc.
ADVANTAGES OF STRIP CHART
• The strip chart has the following main advantages compared to the circular chart.
1. It does not require frequent changing.
2. Long process periods (24 hr or longer) are easily recorded.
3. Readability is the same at all values of scale span.
LIMITATIONS OF STRIP CHART
1. A limited length of the chart is visible (usually about 8 in).
2. It is difficult to file and not easily used for reference.