CHEMICAL BONDING — ICSE CLASS

10 (2027)
Complete Revision Notes + Concept Questions + HOT
Questions

1. INTRODUCTION — WHY DO ATOMS BOND?

Core Concept
Atoms (except noble gases) have incomplete valence shells. They combine to achieve a stable
electronic configuration.

 Duplet Stability: 2 electrons in outer shell (H, He)

 Octet Stability: 8 electrons in outer shell (Ne, Ar)

Chemical Bond
The force of attraction between two atoms that holds them together in a molecule or
compound.

Methods of Achieving Stability

Method Bond Formed Process
Ionic/Electrovalent One atom loses electrons and another
Transfer of electrons
Bond gains
Mutual sharing of electrons Covalent Bond Electrons are shared
One-sided sharing of lone
Coordinate Bond One atom donates both electrons
pair

2. ELECTROVALENT (IONIC) BONDING

Definition
An ionic bond is formed by the complete transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal.

Why Are Ionic Compounds Stable?

Ionic compounds are formed by ions but there also exists a repulsive force between ions for
like charges. Since the electrostatic force of attraction between opposite charges is much
higher, it makes the ionic compounds stable.

Important Terms
 Cation: Positively charged ion
 Anion: Negatively charged ion

Conditions for Formation of Ionic Bond

1. Low ionisation energy
2. High electron affinity
3. Large electronegativity difference

Formation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Step 1: Sodium loses electron

Na → Na⁺ + e⁻

Step 2: Chlorine gains electron

Cl + e⁻ → Cl⁻

Step 3: Oppositely charged ions attract

Na⁺ + Cl⁻ → NaCl

Properties of Ionic Compounds

Property Reason
Hard crystalline solids Strong electrostatic forces
High melting and boiling points Large energy needed to break bonds
Conduct electricity in molten/aqueous state Presence of free mobile ions
Non-conductor in solid state Ions are fixed
Soluble in water Water is polar
Examples
 NaCl
 MgCl₂
 CaO

3. COVALENT BONDING
Definition
A covalent bond is formed by mutual sharing of electrons between atoms.

Types of Covalent Bonds

Bond Type Shared Pairs Example
Single Bond 1 pair H₂, Cl₂
Double Bond 2 pairs O₂
Triple Bond 3 pairs N₂

Polar and Non-Polar Covalent Bonds

Type Nature of Sharing Example
Non-polar Equal sharing H₂
HCl,
Polar Unequal sharing
H₂O

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NON-POLAR COVALENT COMPOUND
----------------------------------------------------

Definition :
Compounds in which electrons are shared equally.
Reason :
Both atoms have same or nearly same electronegativity.

Characteristics :
• no charge develops
• equal sharing occurs
• usually symmetrical molecules

Examples:
H₂
Cl₂
N₂
O₂

Example:

H—H

Both hydrogen atoms attract shared electrons equally.

----------------------------------------------------
POLAR COVALENT COMPOUND
----------------------------------------------------

Definition:
Compounds in which electrons are shared unequally.

Reason:
Difference in electronegativity between atoms.

Result:
Partial charges develop.

δ⁺ → partial positive charge

δ⁻ → partial negative charge

Examples:
HCl
H₂O
NH₃

----------------------------------------------------
HCl AS POLAR COVALENT
----------------------------------------------------

Structure:

H — Cl

Reason:
Chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen.

Therefore:
• shared electrons move closer to chlorine
• unequal sharing occurs

Charges formed:
H → δ⁺
Cl → δ⁻

----------------------------------------------------
WATER (H₂O) AS POLAR MOLECULE
----------------------------------------------------

Reason:
• oxygen is highly electronegative
• unequal sharing occurs
• molecule becomes polar

Effects:
• hydrogen bonding
• high boiling point
• good solvent for ionic compounds

----------------------------------------------------
IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE
----------------------------------------------------

NON-POLAR COVALENT:
• equal sharing
• no poles formed
• same atoms usually involved

POLAR COVALENT:
• unequal sharing
• poles develop
• different atoms involved

----------------------------------------------------
IMPORTANT ICSE POINT
----------------------------------------------------

Polar covalent compounds may ionise in water.

Example:
HCl → H⁺ + Cl⁻

Therefore:
HCl conducts electricity in water.

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KEYWORDS FOR FULL MARKS
----------------------------------------------------

Important Point
Polar compounds develop:

 Partial positive charge (δ⁺)

 Partial negative charge (δ⁻)

Properties of Covalent Compounds

Property Explanation
Low melting/boiling point Weak intermolecular forces
Usually gases or liquids Weak attractions
Non-conductors No free ions

Examples
 H₂
 O₂
 N₂
 CH₄
 NH₃
 H₂O

STRUCTURES OF SOME COVALENT COMPOUNDS

1. HYDROGEN (H₂)

Structure :

H—H

• Single covalent bond

• 1 shared pair of electrons

2. CHLORINE (Cl₂)

Structure :

Cl — Cl • Single covalent bond

• Each chlorine shares 1 electron

3. OXYGEN (O₂)
Structure:

O=O • Double covalent bond

• 2 shared pairs of electrons

4. NITROGEN (N₂)

Structure:

N≡N • Triple covalent bond

• 3 shared pairs of electrons

5. WATER (H₂O)

Structure:

H—O—H • Polar covalent compound

• Oxygen forms 2 single bonds

6. AMMONIA (NH₃)

Structure: • Nitrogen forms 3 covalent bonds

H • Contains one lone pair

H—N—H

7. METHANE (CH₄)

Structure:

H • Carbon forms 4 single covalent bonds

H—C—H

8. HYDROGEN CHLORIDE (HCl)

Structure:

H — Cl • Polar covalent bond

• Unequal sharing of electrons

9. CARBON DIOXIDE (CO₂)

Structure:

O=C=O • Two double covalent bonds

• Linear molecule

10. ETHENE (C₂H₄)

Structure:

H H • One double bond between carbon atoms

C=C

H H

11. ETHYNE (C₂H₂)

Structure:

H—C≡C—H • Triple bond between carbon atoms

IMPORTANT POINTS

Single Bond:

1 shared pair

Double Bond:

2 shared pairs

Triple Bond:
≡

3 shared pairs

4. COORDINATE (DATIVE) BONDING

Definition
A coordinate bond is formed when both shared electrons are donated by one atom.

Important Terms
Term Meaning
Donor atom Gives lone pair
Acceptor atom Accepts lone pair
Lone pair Pair not involved in bonding

Examples
 NH₄⁺
 H₃O⁺
 OH⁻

5. SIGMA AND PI BONDS

Bond Formation Strength
Sigma (σ) Head-on overlap Strong
Pi (π) Sidewise overlap Weak

Important Point

 Single bond = 1 sigma

 Double bond = 1 sigma + 1 pi
 Triple bond = 1 sigma + 2 pi

6. HYDROGEN BONDING
Definition
Weak force of attraction between hydrogen and highly electronegative atoms like:

 Oxygen
 Fluorine
 Nitrogen

Examples
 H₂O
 HF
 NH₃

Effects of Hydrogen Bonding

Effect Example
High boiling point Water
Strong intermolecular attraction HF
Surface tension Water

====================================================
FORMATION OF HYDRONIUM, AMMONIUM AND HYDROXYL ION
====================================================
1. HYDRONIUM ION (H₃O⁺)

Formation:

H₂O + H⁺ → H₃O⁺ Explanation:

Structure:
• Oxygen atom in water contains 2 lone pairs.
• H⁺ ion is electron deficient.
• Oxygen donates one lone pair to H⁺.
H— O —H • Coordinate bond is formed.

H+

Important Points:
• Oxygen = donor atom
• H⁺ = acceptor atom
• One coordinate bond present

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2. AMMONIUM ION (NH₄⁺)
----------------------------------------------------

Formation:

NH₃ + H⁺ → NH₄⁺

Explanation:
• Nitrogen atom in ammonia contains 1 lone pair.
• H⁺ ion is electron deficient.
• Nitrogen donates lone pair to H⁺.
• Coordinate bond formed.

Structure:

H
|
H — N → H+
|
H

Important Points:
• Nitrogen = donor atom
• H⁺ = acceptor atom
• One coordinate bond present

----------------------------------------------------
3. HYDROXYL ION (OH⁻)
----------------------------------------------------

Formation:

H + O + e⁻ → OH⁻

OR

H₂O → H⁺ + OH⁻

Explanation:
• Oxygen gains extra electron.
• Oxygen and hydrogen share electrons.
• Hydroxyl ion carries negative charge.

Structure: H — O⁻

Important Points:
• Oxygen contains lone pairs
• Negative charge present on oxygen

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CONDITIONS FOR COORDINATE BOND
====================================================

1. One atom must contain lone pair.

2. Other atom must be electron deficient.

====================================================

IMPORTANT KEYPOINTS FOR

REVISION
 Ionic bond formation is a redox process.
 Oxidation = loss of electrons.
 Reduction = gain of electrons.
 Ionic compounds contain ions.
 Covalent compounds contain molecules.
 Free ions are necessary for electrical conduction.
 Polar covalent compounds can ionise in water.
 Coordinate bond behaves like covalent bond after formation.

CONCEPT-BASED QUESTIONS WITH

ANSWERS
1. Why do noble gases not participate in chemical
bonding?
Answer:

Noble gases already have stable duplet or octet configurations. Therefore, they do not gain,
lose, or share electrons and are chemically inert.

2. Explain why NaCl conducts electricity only in molten

state. Answer:

In solid NaCl, ions are fixed in position due to strong electrostatic forces and cannot move. In
molten NaCl, ions become free mobile ions and conduct electricity.
3. Differentiate between shared pair and lone pair of
electrons.
Shared Pair Lone Pair
Participates in bonding Does not participate in bonding
Shared between atoms Present on one atom only

4. Identify the type of bonding in:

(a) Water (H₂O)

Covalent bonding

(b) Calcium oxide (CaO)

Ionic bonding

(c) Ammonium ion (NH₄⁺)

Coordinate bonding

5. Why do ionic compounds have high melting points?

Answer:

Strong electrostatic forces exist between oppositely charged ions. Large energy is required to
break these forces.

6. Why are covalent compounds poor conductors of

electricity?
Answer:

Covalent compounds do not contain free ions or free electrons required for electrical
conduction.

7. Why is water considered a polar molecule?

Answer:
Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, causing unequal sharing of electrons and
formation of partial charges.

8. Why does HCl conduct electricity in water but not in

dry state?
Answer:

HCl ionises in water to form free ions but remains molecular in dry state.

HOT QUESTIONS (HIGHER ORDER

THINKING)
1. Compound X is a gas at room temperature and a non-
conductor of electricity. What does this suggest about its
bonding?
Answer:

The compound is likely covalent because:

 Covalent compounds usually exist as gases/liquids.

 They do not contain free ions.
 Weak intermolecular forces are present.

2. An element M has atomic number 12 and reacts with

element N having atomic number 17. Predict formula and
bond type.
Solution:

M = Magnesium (2,8,2)
N = Chlorine (2,8,7)

Mg loses 2 electrons and two chlorine atoms gain 1 electron each.

Formula:

MgCl₂

Bond Type:

Ionic bond

3. Why is the H–N bond in NH₃ covalent but the bond

formed with H⁺ coordinate?
Answer:

In NH₃, electrons are mutually shared between nitrogen and hydrogen. When NH₃ reacts
with H⁺, nitrogen donates both electrons from its lone pair to H⁺, forming a coordinate bond.

4. Compare CCl₄ and NaCl regarding solubility in water.

CCl₄ NaCl
Covalent compound Ionic compound
Insoluble in water Soluble in water
Non-polar Polar

5. Why can molten NaCl conduct electricity but solid NaCl

cannot?
Answer:

Molten NaCl contains free mobile ions, while solid NaCl has fixed ions.

6. Why does diamond have very high hardness although it

is covalent?
Answer:

Diamond has a giant covalent structure where each carbon atom is strongly bonded to four
other carbon atoms.

7. Why does graphite conduct electricity but diamond does

not?
Answer:

Graphite contains free electrons between layers, while diamond has no free electrons.

8. Why does water have unusually high boiling point?

Answer:

Strong hydrogen bonding exists between water molecules, requiring more energy to separate
them.

MOST IMPORTANT ELECTRON DOT

STRUCTURES TO PRACTICE
 NaCl
 MgCl₂
 CaO
 H₂
 Cl₂
 O₂
 N₂
 CH₄
 NH₃
 H₂O
 HCl
 NH₄⁺
ICSE BOARD EXAM TIPS
1. Always mention “free mobile ions” in conductivity answers.
2. Use keywords like:
o electrostatic attraction
o lone pair
o electronegativity
o noble gas configuration
3. Practice electron dot structures regularly.
4. Learn comparison tables properly.
5. HOT questions mostly test reasoning and concepts.

SOLUTIONS FROM TEXT

Question 1

What do you understand by lone pair of electrons.

Answer

A pair of electrons which is not shared with any other atom is known as the lone pair of
electrons.

Question 2

State the type of bonding in the following molecules.

(a) water,

(b) calcium oxide,

(c) hydroxyl ion,

(d) methane,

(e) ammonium ion,

(f) ammonium chloride

Answer

(a) Polar Covalent Bond,

(b) Ionic Bond,

(c) Polar Covalent Bond,

(d) Non Polar Covalent Bond,

(e) Coordinate & Covalent Bond,

(f) Ionic, Covalent and Co-ordinate Bond.

Question 3(a)

Give reasons — Hydrogen chloride can be termed as a polar covalent compound.

Answer

In hydrogen chloride, the strong nuclear charge of the chlorine atom attracts the shared
electron pair towards itself, i.e., negative charge shifts towards the chlorine atom thereby
developing a slight negative charge on it. The hydrogen atom develops a slight positive
charge. Therefore, a polar covalent bond is formed as shown below :

Question 3(b)

Give reasons — Covalent compounds can exist as gases, liquids or soft solids.

Answer

Covalent compounds exist as gases, liquids or soft solids as they have weak force of
attraction between their molecules.

Question 3(c)

Give reasons — Carbon tetrachloride does not dissolve in water.

Answer

Carbon tetrachloride is a non-polar compound and water is a polar compound. Same kind of
compounds dissolve in each other that's why carbon tetrachloride does not dissolve in water.

Question 4

There are three elements E, F, G with atomic numbers 19, 8 and 17 respectively. Give the
molecular formula of the compound formed between E and G and state the type of chemical
bond in this compound.

Answer

EG is the chemical formula.

The electronic configuration of E is (2,8,8,1) and G is (2,8,7). We observe that E tends to
donate one electron and G tends to gain one electron to attain a stable state. Hence, the the
two oppositely charged ions attract each other to form an ionic compound EG.
Ionic bond will be formed.

Question 5

A compound is formed between atoms A and B. The electronic configuration of A is 2,8,1

and B is 2,6.

(a) Write the equation of the formation of ions of A and B.

(b) Why do A and B form ions?

(c) Which of the following can form a compound?

(i) A and A (ii) A and B (iii) B and B
also state the type of bonding present in the compound

(d) If A and B combines, which of them will get oxidised?

(e) Draw an electron dot diagram of the ionic compound formed in part (c).

(f) Write the formula of the compound formed in part (c) which has a
(i) high melting and boiling point
(ii) gaseous compound
(iii) good conductor of electricity in molten state.

Answer

A ⟶ A+ + e-
(a) Atom A loses one electron:

B + 2e- ⟶ B2-
Atom B gains two electrons

(b) A and B form ions to achieve a stable noble gas configuration:

A loses 1 electron → becomes A⁺ with a configuration of 2,8 (like neon).
B gains 2 electrons → becomes B²⁻ with a configuration of 2,8 (also like neon).

(c) A and B can form a compound, electrovalent bonding will be present in it.

(d) Oxidation is the loss of electrons.

A (sodium) loses 1 electron to form Na+. Hence A gets oxidised

(e) Electron dot diagram is shown below:

(f)

(i) A2B
(As A2B is an ionic compound, hence, it will have high melting and boiling point)

(ii) A and B will not form a gaseous compound.

(iii) A2B

(As A2B is an ionic compound, hence, ions will be free to move when in molten state)

Exercise 2 — Long Answer Type

Question 1

Define a coordinate bond and give the conditions for its formation.

Answer

The bond formed between two atoms by sharing a pair of electrons, provided entirely by one
of the combining atoms but shared by both is called a coordinate bond.

Conditions for the formation of coordinate bond are:

(i) One of the two atoms must have at least one lone pair of electrons, e.g., ammonia (NH 3),
water (H2O).

(ii) Another atom should be short of at least a pair of electrons, e.g., Hydrogen ion (H+).

Question 2

Draw an electron dot diagram for the formation of each of the following :

(i) Hydronium ion,

(ii) Ammonium ion,

(iii) Hydroxyl ion.

State the type of bonding present in them.

Answer

(i) Hydronium ion

Co-ordinate & Covalent Bond.

(ii) Ammonium ion

Co-ordinate & Covalent Bond.

(iii) Hydroxyl ion

Polar Covalent Bond.

Question 3(a)

How many atoms of each kind are present in the following molecules : calcium oxide,
chlorine, water, carbon tetrachloride ?

Answer

Calcium oxide (CaO) is formed by one calcium and one oxygen atom.

Chlorine (Cl2) molecule is formed by two chlorine atoms.

Water (H2O) is formed by two hydrogen and one oxygen atom.

Carbon Tetrachloride(CCl4) is formed by one carbon and four chlorine atoms.

Question 3(b)

How many electrons are required or released by each atom mentioned in (a) to attain the
nearest noble gas configuration ?

Answer
In Calcium oxide (CaO), Calcium needs to lose 2 electrons and Oxygen gains that 2 electrons
to attain the nearest noble gas configuration.

In Chlorine (Cl2) molecule, each Chlorine atom needs an electron to complete its octet. So,
two Chlorine atoms share a pair of electrons to attain the nearest noble gas configuration.

In Water (H2O), each Hydrogen atom needs one electron and one Oxygen atom needs two
electrons to complete their duplet and octet respectively. So, each Hydrogen shares a pair of
electrons with Oxygen to attain the nearest noble gas configuration.

In Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl4), each Carbon atom needs 4 electrons and each Chlorine atom
needs one electron to complete their octet. So, each Chlorine shares a pair of electrons with
Carbon to attain the nearest noble gas configuration.

Question 4

Acids dissolve in water and produce positively charged ions. Draw the structure of these
positive ions.

Answer

When acids dissolve in water they produce hydronium ion. Structure of hydronium ion is
shown below:

Question 5(a)

Elements Q and S react together to form an ionic compound. Under normal conditions, which
physical state will the compound QS exist in ?

Answer

QS exist in hard solid state.

Reason — As QS is an ionic compound, it consists of ions bond tightly together by strong
electrostatic forces between them. Due to this it is a hard solid.

Question 5(b)

Elements Q and S react together to form an ionic compound. Can Q and S, both be metals ?
Justify your answer.

Answer
No, Q and S both can't be metals because Q and S react together to form an ionic compound.
It is only possible when one of them is metal and the other one is non-metal.

Question 6

Draw the structural formula of carbon tetrachloride and state the type of bond present in it.

Answer

Structural formula of carbon tetrachloride is given below:

Covalent bond is present in carbon tetrachloride.

Question 7

Compare carbon tetrachloride and sodium chloride with regard to solubility in water and
electrical conductivity.

Answer

Carbon
Sodium chloride
tetrachloride

Solubility in
Insoluble in water Soluble in water
water

Electrical Good conductors in aqueous state or

Non Conductor
conductivity molten state

Question 8

Draw an electron dot diagram of hydronium ion. State the type of bonding present in it.

Answer

Electron dot diagram showing the structure of Hydronium ion is given below:
Co-ordinate bond is present in hydronium ion.

Question 9

By drawing an electron dot diagram, show the lone pair effect leading to the formation of —
ammonium ion from ammonia gas and hydrogen ion.

Answer

Electron dot diagram showing the lone pair effect for formation of NH41+ ion from NH3 gas
and H1+ is given below:

Question 10

The following table shows the electronic configuration of the elements W, X, Y, Z :

Element W X Y Z

Electronic
2, 8, 1 2, 8, 7 2, 5 1
Configurations

Answer the following questions based on the table above:

(i) What type of bond is formed between:

1. W and X
 2. Y and Z

(ii) What is the formula of the compound formed between :

1. X and Z
2. W and X

Answer

(i) Type of bond formed

(a) W (2,8,1) and X (2,8,7) — Electrovalent bond is formed as W donates 1 electron and X
takes up that electron and both attain a stable octet.

(b) Y (2, 5) and Z (1) — Covalent bond as electron sharing takes place between the two
elements. The valency of Z element is 1 and that of Y is 3. Z needs one electrons to attain
stable duplet structure of nearest noble gas - He [2] and Y needs three electrons to attain
stable octet structure of nearest noble gas - Ne [2,8]
One Y atom shares three electron pairs one with each of the three atoms of Z such that Z
acquires a duplet configuration and Y attain a stable octet configuration resulting in the
formation of three single covalent bonds.

(ii) Formula of the compound formed

(a) X (2,8,7) and Z (1) — XZ as X needs one 1 electron to complete it's octet and Z needs
needs one electron to complete it's duplet hence, they both share one electron pair and forms
ZX compound.

(b) W (2,8,1) and X (2,8,7) — WX as W has the tendency to donate one electron and gain
stability whereas X has the tendency to gain one electron to be stable. Hence, W donates one
electron and X takes it and form WX compound.

Question 11

Study the extract of the Periodic table given below and answer the questions that follow. Give
the alphabet corresponding to the element in question. DO NOT repeat an element.

(a) Which element forms covalent compound with G?

(b) The ion of which element will migrate towards the cathode during electrolysis ?

(c) Which non metallic element has the valency 2?

(d) Which is the inert gas?

(e) Which element has the lowest electronegativity in the second column ?

(f) Which element is the most metallic ?

(g) State the type of bond formed between I and E. Write its formula.

(h) Draw the electron dot diagram of the compound formed between I and G.

Answer

(a) A

Reason — G being present in Group 17 is a non-metal; covalent bonds form between non-
metals. Element A being a non-metal shares its single electron with G to form the stable
molecule AG.

(b) B

Reason — The cathode is the negative electrode, attracting positive ions (cations).
Element B is a metal that loses electrons to form a B2+ cation.

(c) E

Reason — E is a non metal which belongs to Group 16. Hence has the valency of 2.

(d) F

Reason — Here F is present in Group 18 and all Group 18 elements are inert gases.

(e) I

Reason — Electronegativity decreases down a group. In the second column, I is below B, so

I has the lowest electronegativity.

(f) H

Reason — Metallic character increases down a group and decreases from left to right across
a period. Since H is towards the bottom left of the given table, it is the most metallic element.

(g) Ionic bond; Formula: IE

Reason — I is a metal of Group 2 and has valency 2. E is a non-metal of Group 16 and also
has valency 2. Therefore, electrons are transferred from I to E, forming an ionic compound
with the formula IE.

(h) The electron dot (Lewis) diagram for IG2:

Reason — I belongs to Group 2, so it loses two electrons to form I2+. G belongs to Group 17,
so each G atom gains one electron to form G-. Therefore, one atom of I combines with two
atoms of G to form IG2.