Chapter 2 and 3 Summary Notes – OSI Models

OSI MODEL FACTS

 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model:

is a theoretical way of classifying and talking about the complex process of

sending data on a network.

 You should be familiar with the OSI model, because it is the most widely
used method for understanding and talking about network communications.

However, remember that OSI MODEL is only a theoretical model that defines
standards for programmers and network administrators, not a model of actual
physical layers.

 Provides a common language and reference

Advantages point for network professionals
of  Divides networking tasks into logical layers for
OSI Model easier comprehension

 Allows specialization of features at different

levels

 Aids in troubleshooting

 Promotes standards of interoperability between

networks and devices.

 Provides modularity in networking features

(developers can change features without
changing the entire approach)

limitations  OSI layers are theoretical and do not actually

perform real functions.

of  Industry implementations rarely have a layer-to-

layer correspondence with the OSI layers.
OSI model  Different protocols within the stack perform
 different functions that help send or receive
the overall message.

 A particular protocol implementation may not

represent every OSI layer (or may spread
across multiple layers).

Circuit switching: This form of connection

Types of 
occupies the entire media for the exchange of

Switching messages between two devices; other devices

wishing to communicate must wait in queue.

on a  Packet switching: This form of connection

splits messages into fixed size packets; the
Network media is shared across multiple connections
and packets are assigned based on a priority
system for transmission.

 Message switching: Message switching is

uncommon; communication over the media is
comprised of entire messages that are
transmitted one after the other.

There are three methods of performing for

synchronizing communication between two devices :
isynchronous, asynchronous, and synchronous.

synchroniz  Synchronous: In a synchronous transmission,

ing the internal clocks of both devices are
synchronized before transmission begins.
communic  Asynchronous: In an asynchronous
ation communication, the sending device sends a
starting bit; the receiving device then starts its
internal clock when it receives the starting bit
to time the message.

 Isynchronous: In this method, both devices

use the same external source for timing.
Windowing  TCP uses a mechanism called windowing to
control the number of segments that are sent
between a one device and another before an
acknowledgment is required.

 This "window" slides as the available bandwidth

between devices increases and decreases
based on a negotiation between devices.

To help remember the layer names of the OSI model, try

the following mnemonic devices:

Mnemonic
Mnemonic (Top to
Layer Name (Bottom to
bot.)
top)

Layer Applicati
Away All
7 on

Layer Presenta
Pizza People
6 tion

Layer
Session Sausage Seem
5

Layer Transpor
Throw To
4 t

Layer
Network Not Need
3

Layer Data
Do Data
2 Link
 Layer
Physical Please Processing
1

OSI LAYER FACTS

The following table compares the functions performed at each OSI model
layer:

Layer Description and Keywords

The Application layer integrates network functionality into the host

operating system and enables network services.

The Application layer does not include specific applications that

provide services, but rather provides the capability for services to
Applicatio operate on the network.
n (Layer
7) Most Application layer protocols operate at multiple layers down to
the Session and even Transport layers.

However, they are classified as Application layer protocols because

they start at the Application layer (the Application layer is the
highest layer where they operate). Services typically associated with
the Application layer include: HTTP , Telnet, FTP , TFTP, SNMP

The Presentation layer formats or "presents" data into a

compatible form for receipt by the Application layer or the
destination system.

Specifically, the Presentation layer ensures:

 Formatting and translation of data between systems.

Presentat
ion (Layer  Negotiation of data transfer syntax between systems
6) by converting character sets to the correct format.

 Encapsulation of data into message envelopes by

encryption and compression.

 Restoration of data by decryption and decompression.

Session The Session layer manages the sessions in which data are
(Layer 5) transferred.
 Session layer functions include:

 Management of multiple sessions (each client

connection is called a session). A server can
concurrently maintain thousands of sessions.

 Assignment of a session ID number to each session to

keep data streams separate.

 The setting up, maintenance, and tearing down of

communication sessions.

The Transport layer provides a transition between the upper

and lower layers of the OSI model, making the upper and lower
layers transparent from each other.

Transport layer functions include:

 End-to-end flow control.

Transport  Port and socket numbers.
(Layer 4)
 Segmentation, sequencing, and combination.

 Connection services, either reliable (connection-oriented) or

unreliable (connectionless) delivery of data.

Data at the Transport layer are referred to

as segments.

Network The Network layer describes how data are routed across
(Layer 3) networks and on to the destination.

Network layer functions include:

 Identifying hosts and networks by using logical addresses.

 Maintaining a list of known networks and neighboring

routers.

 Determining the next network point to which data should be

sent.

Routers use a routing protocol that takes into account various

 factors, such as the number of hops in the path, link speed, and
link reliability, to select the optimal path for data.

Data at the Network layer are referred to

as packets.

Logical The Data Link layer defines the rules

Link and procedures for hosts as they access the
Control Physical layer.
(LLC)
 Logical Link Control (LLC):- is the
component layer responsible for error
control and flow-control functions.

 Media Access Control (MAC):- is

responsible for addressing network
devices by using physical address

These rules and procedures specify or

define:

Data Link  How hosts on the network are

(Layer 2) identified (physical or MAC address).
Media
Access  How and when devices can transmit
Control on the network medium (media access
(MAC) control and logical topology).

 How to verify that the data received

from the Physical layer are error free
(parity and CRC).

 How devices control the rate of data

transmission between hosts (flow
control).

Data at the Data Link layer are

referred to as frames.

Physical The Physical layer of the OSI model sets standards for
(Layer 1) sending and receiving electrical signals between devices.

Protocols at the Physical layer identify:

  How digital data (bits) are converted to electric pulses,
radio waves, or pulses of light.
 Specifications for cables and connectors.
 The physical topology.

Data at the Physical layer are referred to as bits.

Summary of OSI Model

THE TCP/IP MODEL

 It incorporates the general concepts and structure of the OSI model. The
layers of the TCP/IP model are as follows:

Layer Description

The Application layer corresponds to the Session, Presentation,

and Application layers of the OSI model.
Applicat
ion
 Protocols associated with the Application layer include FTP,
HTTP, Telnet, SMTP, DNS, and SNMP.

The Host-to-host layer is comparable to the Transport layer of

the OSI model.
 It is responsible for error checking and reliable packet
delivery.
Host-to-
Host  Here, the data stream is broken into segments that must be
assigned sequence numbers so they can be reassembled
(Transp correctly on the remote side after they are transported.
ort)
 Protocols associated with the Host-to-host layer include
Transport Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol
(UDP).


The Internet layer is comparable to the Network layer of the OSI

model.

 It is responsible for moving packets through a network.

Internet  This involves addressing hosts and making routing decisions

to identify how the packet traverses the network.

 Protocols associated with the Internet layer include Address

Resolution Protocol (ARP), Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP), and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP).

The Network Access layer corresponds to the Physical and Data

Networ Link layers of the OSI model.

k
 It is responsible for describing the physical layout of the
Access network and how messages are formatted on the transmission
medium.

 The TCP/IP model focuses specifically on the functions in the

 Internet layer and the Host-to-host layer. All other functions
of the traditional OSI model are encompassed in the first and
fourth layers.

TCP/IP Protocol

A protocol is a set of standards for communication between network hosts.

Protocols often provide services, such as email or file transfer.

Most protocols are not intended to be used alone and rely on interaction with other dependent or
complimentary protocols.

A protocol suite is a group of protocols intended to be used together.

The internet protocol suite (frequently referred to as TCP/IP) is the most widely used
protocol suite today. The following table lists several protocols in the TCP/IP protocol suite:
Categ Protoco
Description
ory l

• Web browsers and web servers use

HTTP to exchange files (such as web
pages) through the world wide web
and intranets.

Hypertext • HTTP can be described as an

Transfer information requesting and
Protocol responding protocol.
(HTTP)
Web
Services • HTTP is typically used to request and
send web documents, but is also used
as the protocol for communication
between agents that employ different
TCP/IP protocols.

HTTP over HTTPS is a secure form of HTTP that uses

SSL SSL to encrypt data before it is transmitted.
(HTTPS)

Security • SSL secures messages being

Protocols transmitted on the internet.

• SSL uses RSA for authentication and

Secure encryption.
Sockets
Layer (SSL) • Web browsers use SSL to ensure safe
web transactions.

• URLs that begin with https:// trigger

your web browser to use SSL.

Transport TLS ensures that messages being

Layer transmitted on the internet are private and
Security tamper proof. TLS is implemented through
(TLS) two protocols:

 TLS Record can provide connection

 security with encryption (for
example, with DES).

 TLS Handshake provides mutual

authentication and choice of
encryption method.

TLS version 1.2 (TLS1.2) is an updated

version that improves security flaws found
in TLS 1.0 and 1.1.

File • FTP provides a generic method for

Transfer transferring files.

• FTP can protect access to files by

requiring user names and passwords,
and it allows file transfer between
dissimilar computer systems.

• FTP can transfer both binary and text

File files, including HTML, to another host.
Transfer
Protocol • FTP URLs are preceded
(FTP) by ftp:// followed by the DNS name of
the FTP server. To log in to an FTP
server,
use [Link]

• The FTP protocol does not use

encryption. All data, including user
names, passwords, and files, are sent
over the network as clear text.

Trivial File • TFTP is similar to FTP.

Transfer
Protocol • It lets you transfer files between a
(TFTP) host and an FTP server.

• However, it does not provide user

authentication or error detection.

• TFTP is often used when files need to

be transferred between systems
quickly.
 • Because it does not perform error
detection, TFTP is faster than FTP, but
is susceptible to transmission errors.

• SFTP uses Secure Shell (SSH) to

secure data transfers.
Secure File
Transfer
• SSH ensures that SFTP transmissions
Protocol
use encrypted commands and data,
(SFTP)
which prevents clear text data
transmissions.

• SCP is used to securely transfer files

between systems.
Secure
Copy (SCP) • Like SFTP, SCP relies on SSH to ensure
that data and passwords are not
transmitted over the network in clear
text.

Email SMTP is used to route electronic mail

through the internetwork. SMTP is used:

 Between mail servers for sending and

Simple Mail relaying mail.
Transfer
Protocol  By all email clients to send mail.
(SMTP)
 By some email client programs, such
as Microsoft Outlook, to receive mail
from an Exchange server.

• POP3 is used to retrieve email from a

remote server and download it to a
Post Office local client over a TCP/IP connection.
Protocol 3
(POP3) • An email client that uses POP3 for
receiving mail uses SMTP for sending
mail.

Internet • IMAP4 is an email retrieval protocol

Message designed to enable users to access
Access their email from various locations
Protocol without the need to transfer
 messages or files back and forth
between computers.

• Messages remain on the remote mail

version 4 server and are not automatically
(IMAP4) downloaded to a client system.

• An email client that uses IMAP4 for

receiving mail uses SMTP for sending
mail.

Network • DHCP is used to automatically assign

Services addresses and other configuration
Dynamic
parameters to network hosts.
Host
•
Configurati
Using a DHCP server, hosts receive
on Protocol
configuration information at startup,
(DHCP)
reducing the amount of manual
configuration required on each host.

• DNS is a distributed system

throughout the internetwork that
Domain provides address and name
Name resolution.
System
(DNS) For example, the
name [Link] would be
mapped to a specific IP address.

Network
 NTP is used to communicate time
Time
synchronization information between
Protocol
systems on a network.
(NTP)

Lightweight • LDAP is used to search, retrieve data

Directory from, and update a directory service.
Access
Protocol • The LDAP protocol follows a
(LDAP) client/server model. One or
more LDAP servers contain the
directory data.

• The LDAP client connects to an LDAP

Server to make a directory service
request.

• By default, LDAP traffic is transmitted

 unsecured.

Secure • LDAPS is the lightweight directory

Lightweight access protocol over TLS/SSL.
Directory
Access • Using LDAPS makes LDAP traffic
Protocol confidential and secure. LDAPS uses
(LDAPS) TCP port 636.

SNMP is designed for managing complex

networks.
Simple
Network
SNMP lets network hosts exchange
Manageme
configuration and status information.
nt Protocol
This information can be gathered by
(SNMP)
management software and is used to
monitor and manage the network.

• Telnet allows a computer to remotely

access the console of a computer
system somewhere else in the
network.

Remote • At one time, Telnet was widely used

Terminal for remote management tasks, but it
Emulation is rarely used today.
Network
(Telnet)
Managem
• Because Telnet does not use
ent
encryption, it is recommended that
you use a secure alternative to Telnet
for remote management tasks, such
as SSH.

• SSH allows for secure interactive

control of remote systems.

• SSH uses RSA public key cryptography

for both connection and
Secure authentication.
Shell (SSH)
• SSH uses the IDEA algorithm for
encryption by default, but it can use
Blowfish and DES. SSH is a secure and
preferred alternative to Telnet.

Transport Transmissio TCP provides services that ensure accurate

 and timely delivery of network
communications between two hosts. TCP
provides the following services to ensure
message delivery:
n Control
Protocol  Sequencing of data packets
(TCP)  Flow control
 Error checking
 Acknowledgement of packets sent
 Retransmission of lost packets
Protocols

UDP is a host-to-host protocol like TCP, but

it does not acknowledge each packet
transmitted, nor does it allow for
User
retransmission of lost packets. This reduces
Datagram
its overhead, allowing for faster
Protocol
communications and making UDP ideal for
(UDP)
applications like streaming audio and video.
However, this speed comes at the expense
of possible errors or data loss.

ICMP works closely with IP to prevent errors

and control information by allowing hosts to
exchange packet status information. Two
common management
utilities, ping and traceroute, use ICMP
Internet messages to check network connectivity.
Control ICMP also works with IP to send notices for
Message the following:
Protocol
(ICMP)  When destinations are unreachable
Control  Which route and hops a packet takes
Protocols through the network
 Whether devices can communicate
across the network

IGMP defines host groups. All group

Internet
members can receive broadcast messages
Group
(multicasts) intended for the group.
Manageme
Multicast groups can be composed of
nt Protocol
devices within the same network or across
(IGMP)
networks (connected with a router).

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed to work independently of the

physical network architecture. You can use a wide variety of architectures
with the TCP/IP protocol suite.