Environmental Science (NESV101)

Lecture 1
Characteristics/Source/Types/Analysis
and treatment of Water
 INTRODUCTION

• Water for most of the population (Urban ) in the

world turns their taps on every day to take a drink
of publicly supplied water. They all assume that
when they take a drink it is safe. They probably
never even think of safety
• Public water systems provide water for human
consumption through pipes or other constructed
conveyances to at least 15 service connections or
serve an average of at least 25 people for at least 60
days a year.
 INTRODUCTION

United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-

EPA) has defined three types of public water systems:
Community Water System (CWS): A public water
system that supplies water to the same population year-
round.
Non-Transient Non-Community Water System
(NTNCWS): A public water system that regularly
supplies water to at least 25 of the same people at least
six months per year, but not year-round. Some examples
are schools, factories, office buildings, and hospitals that
have their own water systems.
Transient Non-Community Water System (TNCWS): A
public water system that provides water in a place such
as a gas station or campground where people do not
remain for long periods of time.
Agents causing waterborne disease outbreaks (USA)
 INTRODUCTION

• A water that can be consumed in any desired

amount without concern for adverse
health effects is termed a potable water.
Potable does not necessarily mean that the
water tastes good. This is in contrast to a
palatable water, which is one that is pleasing
to drink, but not necessarily safe
 Water Quality
• Precipitation in the form of rain, hail, or snow
contains very few impurities. It may contain
trace amounts of mineral matter, gases, and
other substances as it forms and falls through
the earth’s atmosphere.
• The precipitation, however, has virtually no
bacterial content
[Link]
 Water Quality

 Once precipitation reaches the earth’s surface, many opportunities are

presented for the introduction of mineral and organic substances,
microorganisms, and other forms of pollution (contamination). When
water runs over or through the ground surface, it may pick up particles
of soil.
 This is noticeable in the water as cloudiness or turbidity. It also picks
up particles of organic matter and bacteria. As surface water seeps
downward into the soil and through the underlying material to the
water table, most of the suspended particles are filtered out.
 This natural filtration may be partially effective in removing bacteria
and other particulate materials. However, the chemical characteristics
of the water may change and vary widely when it comes in contact
with mineral deposits.
 As surface water seeps down to the water table, it dissolves some of
the minerals contained in the soil and rocks. Groundwater, therefore,
often contains more dissolved minerals than surface water.
Categories used to describe drinking water quality
 There are many impurities in the raw water
 These impurities can be grouped into Four categories:
 Physical:Physical characteristics relate to the quality of
water for domestic use and are usually associated with the
appearance of water, its color or turbidity, temperature, and,
in particular, taste and odor.
 Chemical: substances dissolved in the water from both
natural and man-made processes
 Biological: viruses, bacteria, algae, and other small living
organisms.
 Radiological: Radiological factors must be considered in
areas where there is a possibility that the water may have
come in contact with radioactive substances. The
radioactivity of the water is of public health concern in these
cases.
 Physical, Chemical &Biological
Characteristics

• Turbidity • Chloride
• Colour • Fluoride
• Taste and Odour • Iron
• Temperature • Lead
• Manganese
• Sodium
• Sulfate
viruses, bacteria, protozoa, • Toxic Inorganic
and helminths (worms). • Toxic Organic
 Physical
• Turbidity. The presence of suspended material such as clay, silt, finely
divided organic material, plankton, and other particulate material in water
is known as turbidity. The unit of measure is a Turbidity Unit (TU) or
Nephlometric Turbidity Unit (NTU)
• Clay or other inert suspended particles in drinking water may not
adversely affect the health but water containing such particles may
require treatment to make it suitable
for its intended use.
• Following a rainfall, variations in the groundwater turbidity maybe
considered an indication of surface or other introduced pollution
• Colour:Dissolved organic material from decaying vegetation and certain
inorganic matter cause color in water
• Occasionally, excessive blooms of algae or the growth of aquatic
microorganisms may also impart color. While color itself is not usually
objectionable from the standpoint of health, its presence is aesthetically
objectionable and suggests that the water needs appropriate treatment
 Hardness
• Hardness is used to characterize a water that does
not lather well, causes a scum in the bath tub, and
leaves hard, white, crusty deposits (scale) on
coffee pots, tea kettles, and hot water heaters.
• The failure to lather well and the formation of scum
on bath tubs is the result of the reactions of calcium
and magnesium with the soap.
 Hardness
• Hardness is defined as the sum of all polyvalent
cations .The common units of expression are mg/L as
CaCO3 or meq/L.

A common water treatment goal is to provide water with a

hardness in the range of 75 to 120 mg/L as CaCO3
 Hardness
• Temporary Hardness: The presence of magnesium and calcium
carbonates in water makes it temporarily hard.
• In this case, the hardness in water can be removed by boiling the
water.
• Soluble salts of Mg(HCO3)2 are converted to Mg(OH)2, which is
insoluble
• Permanent Hardness : soluble salts of magnesium and calcium are
present in the form of chlorides and sulphides in water, we call it
permanent hardness because this hardness cannot be removed by
boiling.
• We can remove this hardness by treating the water with washing
soda. Insoluble carbonates are formed when washing soda reacts
with the sulphide and chloride salts of magnesium and calcium, and
thus, hard water is converted to soft water.
• The total hardness of the water can be described as the
combination of temporary (carbonate hardness) and permanent
hardness (non-carbonate hardness).
 TDS
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) refer to the concentration of dissolved
solids in water, typically measured in parts per million (ppm) or
milligrams per liter (mg/L). TDS includes a wide range of substances,
such as:
Inorganic salts: Calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and
chlorides.
Minerals: Carbonates, bicarbonates, sulfates, and phosphates.
Heavy metals like lead, mercury, and arsenic, as well as other metals
like iron and manganese.
Organic compounds: Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), including
humic and fulvic acids.
Sources of TDS
Natural sources: Weathering of rocks, soil, and minerals.
Human activities: Industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and sewage.
 TDS
Effects of High TDS
Taste and odor: High TDS can cause unpleasant taste and odor in water.
Corrosion: High TDS can increase the corrosivity of water, leading to damage to pipes and infrastructure.
Scalability: High TDS can cause scaling, which can reduce the efficiency of water treatment processes.
Health concerns: High levels of certain dissolved solids, such as heavy metals, can pose health risks.
Limits
WHO guidelines: 1,000 mg/L (1,000 ppm) for drinking water.
US EPA standards: 500 mg/L (500 ppm) for drinking water.
Local regulations: Varying limits depending on the jurisdiction.
Removal of TDS
Reverse osmosis: Effective in removing dissolved solids.
Distillation: Can remove dissolved solids, but energy-intensive.
Ion exchange: Can remove specific dissolved solids, such as heavy metals.
Activated carbon filtration: Can remove some dissolved solids, such as chlorine and organic compounds.
 Xenobiotic
A xenobiotic is a chemical substance that is foreign to a living
organism's biological system. These substances are not naturally
produced or expected to be present in the body. Xenobiotics can
include a wide range of substances, such as:
Drugs: Pharmaceuticals that are administered to the body.
Pesticides: Chemicals used to control pests in agriculture.
Industrial chemicals: Compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) and dioxins.
Food additives: Artificial preservatives, colorants, or flavor
enhancers.
Environmental pollutants: Substances that enter ecosystems due to
industrial and human activity.

The body processes xenobiotics through metabolism, often involving the

liver, where enzymes like cytochrome P450 oxidize and modify these
substances to make them easier to eliminate through urine or feces.
However, some xenobiotics can be toxic or persist in the environment,
leading to bioaccumulation and potential health risks.
Route for Xenobiotics
 Is the drinking water that comes out of our tap "pure"?

 No "Chemically pure" water, entirely free from any other materials,

does not exist in nature.

 Distilled water, is usually flat and tasteless and few people enjoy
drinking it.
 It would be prohibitively expensive and possibly unhealthy to purify
our entire water supply to that level.

 "Natural water", free from any man-made additives, contains

concentrations of minerals such as Ca, Mg, and Fe which are
beneficial to human health in small quantities.
WHO guideline for heavy metals in drinking water

[Link]
 Water Quality Standards

In our nation Water Quality Standards

follows IS 10500:2012
By
Bureau of Indian Standards, GOI
 Basic water treatment processes

 Sedimentation
1. Physical Process  Filtration
 Aeration
Most common
 Oxidation
 Coagulation
2. Chemical Process  Flocculation
 softening
 Disinfection
 Physical Process
 Raw water entering to the treatment plant will be screened to
avoid the entrance of larger animals like fish and plant
materials like branches and logs.

I. Sedimentation
 Quality of water is improved by holding or storing it undisturbed
and without mixing long enough for larger particles to settle out
/sediment by gravity
 The settle water then carefully removed by decanting , ladling or
other gentle methods

 Takes place: sedimentation/ settling tank/clarifier

 Sedimentation

 Particles settle to the bottom under quiescent conditions ( when

flow velocities and turbulence are minimal

 Sludge – the accumulated solid at the bottom , called sludge will

be removed by decanting, ladling or other methods

 Storing water for a few hours will sediment the large, dense particles
such as sands and silt , larger microbes and smaller particles associated
with large particles

 Longer settling times, more than 24 h to 1 or 2 days will remove

large microbes such as helminths ova and other parasites, some
nuisance microbes such as algae and clay particles
 sedimentation

 Sedimentation efficacy
 viruses and bacteria by sedimentation rarely exceed 90%
 helminths ova and some protozoans exceed 90% especially at
a longer storage time
 Sedimentation Depends on
 density, size, drag, buoyancy, temperature and viscosity of
water
V
TD 
Q
where TD  detention time
V  volume of water in tan k
Q  average flow rate(volume per unit time)
 sedimentation

Overflow Rate or Surface loading

Q
Vo 
AS
Vo  overflow rate, L / day / m 2
Q  average flow rate, L / day
As  tan k surface area (top view), m 2

 Sedimentation is effective in reducing water turbidity, but it is not

consistently effective in reducing microbial contamination.
 However, , turbidity reduction often improve microbial reduction
by the next processes.
 Sedimentation also improves aesthetic quality
Chemical treatment process Coagulation
 Most organic and inorganic material suspended in water and
not dissolved will settle out if given enough time.
 However, the main materials that contribute to color and
turbidity are either dissolved or too small to settle.
 The basic problem comes from material that is less than one
micrometer (0.001 mm) in size, called colloidal material.
 Colloids do not settle in a reasonable length of time due to
electrical charges on their surface.
 At one micrometer (also stated as 1 µm) in size, the influence
of the surface charges offsets gravity, and the particles stay
suspended.
 For instance, a particle 0.01 mm in diameter will settle one foot
in 33 minutes, but a particle 0.0001 mm in diameter (a colloid)
will settle only one foot in 230 days.
coagulation
 coagulation
Hydrophobic: water-fearing.

Hydrophobic colloidal material is mostly inorganic material that

contributes to turbidity and carries a negative electrical surface
charge.
In water, hydrophobic refers to inorganic colloidal particles
that contribute to turbidity.
 coagulation

Hydrophilic (Hydrophilic means water-loving)

Hydrophilic compounds are surrounded by water molecules that
tend to make these particles negatively charged Water-loving as
well
Hydrophilic colloidal material is mostly composed of organic
material that is the common source of color in water.

In water, hydrophilic refers to organic colloidal particles that

contribute to color
 coagulation
 Organic material that will pass through a 0.45
micrometer membrane filter is considered to be
dissolved.

 These materials include humic and fulvic acids that can

cause color in water and are measured as organic carbon

 Total organic carbon (TOC) includes the materials that

are both larger and smaller than 0.45 micrometers in size.

 Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is the fraction of

organic material that is smaller than 0.45 micrometers.
These acids carry a negative charge
 coagulation
Coagulants Coagulation results from
There are two opposing forces adding salts of iron, aluminum,
that impact the removal of or cationic polymer to the
colloidal material: water.
Stability factors – Stability factors Some common coagulants
are those factors that help to keep include the following:
colloids dispersed. Aluminum Sulfate (Alum) Al
Instability factors – Instability (SO4)2 • 18H20
factors are those factors that Sodium Aluminate – NaAlO2
contribute to the natural removal Ferric Sulfate – Fe2(SO4)3 • 9H20
of colloids. Ferrous Sulfate – FeSO4 • 7H20
The process of decreasing the Ferric Chloride – FeCl3
stability of the colloids in water is Polyaluminum Chloride (PAC)
called coagulation Cationic Polymers
 coagulation
 The addition of metal salts or polymers to water containing
negatively charged contaminants may result in a process called
coagulation.

 The simplest coagulation process to explain occurs between alum

and water. When alum is placed in water, a chemical reaction
occurs that produces positive charged aluminum ions.

 The positively charged aluminum ions then become attached to

the surface of the negatively charged colloid. The overall result is
the reduction of the negative surface charges and the
subsequent formation of agglomerated(floc).

 This destabilizing factor is the major contribution that

coagulation makes to the removal of turbidity, color, and
microorganisms
 coagulation
 Coagulation process is affected by
 pH
 Turbidity
 Temperature
 alkalinity

 The degree to which these factors affect depend on the

type of the coagulant used.
 When metals salts are used as primary coagulant, the process is
more affected than when polymers cations are used

 3 common types of polymers

 Oxidation/Aeration
 Chemical oxidation is used in water treatment to aid in the
removal of inorganic contaminants such as iron (Fe2+),
manganese (Mn2+), and arsenic (As3+) to improve removals of
particles by coagulation or to destroy taste and odor causing
compounds.
 Oxidation can also be used prior to coagulation, filtration,
adsorption, or sedimentation to improve the removal of
inorganics, particulates, taste, or odor.
 The most commonly used oxidants in small systems include
chlorine (Cl2) and potassium permanganate (KMnO4).
 To a lesser extent, ozone and chlorine dioxide are also used
for this purpose.
 Iron and manganese in water can also be oxidised
by chlorine, converting to ferric hydroxide and manganese
dioxide.
Oxidation/Aeration

The oxidation products, ferric hydroxide and manganese dioxide,

are insoluble. After aeration, they are removed by clarification or
 oxidation

 Oxidants are injected as a gas or a liquid. Mixing or diffusion

of the gas or liquid into the water stream occurs very quickly.
 Reaction Time is a critical parameter when oxidants are used
in the treatment process.
 The speed or reaction rate is dependent on the type of
oxidant, type of contaminant, pH, and water temperature.
 As a general rule, lower pH or water temperature tends to
slow the rate of oxidation.
 The oxidation rate can be slowed or the oxidant demand can
be increased by the presence of other contaminants, such as
organic carbon, ammonia.
 Organic carbon can become attached to the iron or
manganese, resulting in a complexed form of the iron or
manganese.
Softening
• Chemical precipitation is one of the more common methods used to
soften water.
• Chemicals normally used are lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2) and
soda ash (sodium carbonate, Na2CO3).
• Lime is used to remove chemicals that cause carbonate hardness. Soda
ash is used to remove chemicals that cause non-carbonate hardness.
• When lime and soda ash are added, hardness-causing minerals form
nearly insoluble precipitates. Calcium hardness is precipitated as
calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
• Magnesium hardness is precipitated as magnesium hydroxide
(Mg(OH)2).
Softening
CO2 does not contribute to the
hardness, but it reacts with the lime
Flocculation
Flocculation is a physical process of slowly mixing the coagulated
water to increase the probability of particle collision.
This process forms the floc. Floc is a snowflake- looking material
that is made up of the colloidal particles, microorganisms, and
precipitate.
Flocculation can occur with the addition of only the primary
coagulant.

However,
 Additional chemicals can be added to improve the settling or
filtering characteristics the coagulated materials called floc.
The common flocculants are anionic polymers.
 Anionic polymers increase the speed of floc formation,
the strength and the weight of the floc.
 Flocculation process requires 15-45 minutes depending on
temperature
 Filtration
 Filtration is a physical process of separating suspended and
colloidal particles from water by passing the water through
a filter media.

 It involves straining, settling, and adsorption.

 As particle contaminants pass into the filter, the spaces

between the filter grains become clogged, which reduces the
openings.
 Some contaminants are removed merely because they settle
onto a media grain.
 Others are adsorbed onto the surface of individual filter grains.
 This adsorption process helps to collect the contaminants
(floc) and thus re- duces the size of the openings between the
media grains.
Filtration

Bacterium (.001 mm)

Floc
Straining
Flocculation

.5mm
Filter
Media
Sedimentation
 Filtration
 Gravity filters rely on the depth of water above the filter
media to provide the driving force to pass water through
the media as it clogs.
 Pressure filters are enclosed in pressure vessels and can
operate with much higher driving forces
 A major advantage of the pressure filter is that water can
be treated under pressure and pumped to a water storage
tank at a higher elevation without the need to pump the
water after filtration.
 One disadvantage of the pressure filtration system is the
inability to visually observe the condition of the filter media
and the backwash process.
Rapid Sand Filters
Rapid sand filters are the most widely used filters in water
treatment. They consist of a bed of sand or other granular media
through which water is passed to remove suspended solids,
turbidity, and some microorganisms. The sand bed traps and
retains particles while allowing the water to pass through.
Slow Sand Filters
Slow sand filters are another type of filter used in water
treatment. They operate at a slower rate compared to rapid sand
filters and rely on biological processes for filtration. Water flows
slowly through a bed of fine sand, and a biological layer, called
the Schmutzdecke, forms on the sand surface. This layer helps to
trap and remove suspended solids, pathogens, and other
impurities.
Multimedia Filters
Multimedia filters use a combination of different types and sizes
of media, such as sand, anthracite coal, and garnet, to
improve the filtration process. The layers of media with
varying sizes provide enhanced filtration and help remove a
wider range of particles and impurities from the water.
 filtration
Filter Media

 Consists of silica sand, greensand, anthracite coal and activated

carbon
 Each media can be used by themselves as a single media filter or
mixed to provide improved filtration

 The two most common granular media filters are

 Dual media - anthracite coal + silica sand
 Tri-media filters – anthracite coal + silica sand + fine garnet

 Most common filter arrangements in mixed filter media

 Anthracite(top) + green media – to remove inorganic
contaminants such as Mn and Fe
 Activated carbon + silica sand – to adsorb organic contaminants
called contactors
 IV. Disinfection

 The goal of disinfection in water system is to inactivate all

disease-causing organisms.

What is the difference between disinfection and sterilization?

 Inactivation is achieved by altering or destroying essential

structures or functions within the microbe.

 Inactivation processes include denaturation of:

 proteins (structural proteins, enzymes, transport proteins)
 nucleic acids (genomic DNA or RNA, mRNA, tRNA, etc)
 lipids (lipid bilayer membranes, other lipids)
 disinfection
Disinfectants in Water Treatment

 Free Chlorine
 Monochloramine
 Ozone
 Chlorine Dioxide
 UV Light
 Low pressure mercury lamp (monochromatic)
 Medium pressure mercury lamp (polychromatic)
 Pulsed broadband radiation
 Boiling - At household level in many countries and for emergencies
 Iodine - Short-term use; long-term use a health concern
 Disinfectant nature
• A good disinfectant must be toxic to
microorganism at concentration well below
the toxic threshold to humans and animals.
• It should have fast rate to kill and should be
persistent enough to prevent regrowth of
organism in distribution system
Chlorination
 disinfection
Properties of an Ideal Disinfectant

 Broad spectrum: active against all microbes

 Fast acting: produces rapid inactivation
 Effective in the presence of organic matter, suspended solids
and other matrix or sample constituents

Nontoxic; soluble; non-flammable; non-explosive

Compatible with various materials/surfaces
Stable or persistent for the intended exposure period

Provides a residual (sometimes this is undesirable)

Easy to generate and apply
Economical
 Factors Affecting
• Form of Chlorine
• pH
• Concentration
• Contact Time
• Type of Organism
• Temperature
 Factors Influencing Disinfection Efficacy and Microbial
Inactivation - Water Quality
• Particulates: protect microbes from inactivation;
consume disinfectant
• Dissolved organics: protect microbes from inactivation; consumes or
absorbs (for UV radiation) disinfectant; Coat microbe (deposit on surface)
• pH: influences microbe inactivation by some agents
– free chlorine more effective at low pH where HOCl predominates
• neutral HOCl species more easily reaches microbe surface and
penetrates)
• negative charged OCl- has a harder time reaching negatively charged
microbe surface
– chlorine dioxide is more effective at high pH
• Inorganic compounds and ions: influences microbe inactivation by some
disinfectants; depends on disinfectant
 CT value
The CT value is a measurement of the concentration of
disinfectant and the contact time required to inactivate viruses
and Giardia cysts.
It is calculated by multiplying the disinfectant concentration (C)
in milligrams per liter (mg/L) by the contact time (T) in
minutes. The CT value is usually expressed in mg-min/L.
It is widely used in the Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR)
as a criteria for cyst and virus disinfection.
CT is an expression for defining the nature of biological
inactivation where:
CTcal(mg-min/L)= 𝐶 × T
C= Residual disinfectant concentration measured during peak hourly flow in mg/L
T= Time, measured in minutes, that the water is in contact with the disinfectant
 CT
• The World Health Organisation recommend that there
should be a free chlorine concentration of ≥ 0.5 mg/L
after at least 30 minutes contact time (so Ct = 30 x 0.5
= 15 [Link]/L), at pH < 8.0. And that at the point of
delivery, the minimum free chlorine concentration should
be 0.2 mg/L.
 Log removal & % removal
• It has become common in the water industry to express the
inactivation credit or to express the physical removal achieved in a
plant as log removal.

• If the log removal for a series of data is to be determined, then the

averages for the influent and effluent concentrations can be used
CT Values for Various Disinfectants
Disinfectant Disinf Log Microorg pH Wate Required
ectant Inactivati anism r CT
Conce on* Temp
ntrati eratu
on re
Free 0.6 1 Giardia 7.0 <34° 67
Chlorine mg/L F
Varies 3 Viruses 6-9 <34° 9
F
Chloramines Varies 1 Giardia 6-9 <34° 1,270
F
Varies 3 Viruses N/A <34° 2,063
F
Ozone Varies 1 Giardia --- <34° 0.97
F
Varies 3 Viruses --- <34° 1.4
 UV Disinfection
 UV light inactivates microorganisms by damaging their
nucleic acid and preventing them from replicating, thus
making it impossible for the organisms to infect the host.
 water treatment occurs primarily at a wavelength between
200 nanometers (nm) and 300 nm. A mercury-based UV
lamp will produce ultraviolet light at 253.7 nm.
 The UV dosages required to inactivate viruses are
substantially higher than those required to inactive
Cryptospordium and Giardia.
 UV leaves no residual and thus requires the addition of
chlorine or some other secondary disinfectant to maintain a
residual in the system
 Ozone
Ozone (O3) is a colorless gas with a
characteristic odor reminiscent of a lightning
storm. Ozone has been used in drinking water
treatment
Ozone is a very powerful disinfectant. The
concentration and reaction times are
substantially lower than those required for free
chlorine
. Required CT values for inactivation of Giardia
by ozone are on the order of 1/10th of those
required for free chlorine.
DRINKING WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

WATER TREATMENT