 Unit 1- Identifying staffing needs

Introduction
In Guyana, the appointment of staff for schools without a Board of Governors (BOG) is
done by the Teaching Service Commission (TSC). In schools with a Board of Governors, it
is the responsibility of the Board. Various arrangements exist in private schools but
normally staff are appointed by the trustees in conjunction with the headteacher. You
could find yourself as headteacher of any of these three types of school.
However, as headteacher, it is important that you have a say in the appointment of the
staff in your school. The success of the school depends upon it and even if you
personally do not appoint the staff, it is incumbent on you to be in frequent contact and
discussions with those who do. Successful headteachers who run thriving schools do not
leave it to chance. You can sit back and allow others to do it for you or you can be
proactive and work with the TSC, the Trustees or the Board to achieve the best for your
school. The TSC or Board will be only too willing to discuss your staffing needs and to
assist in trying to achieve the best for your school.
In many countries, staff selection has been delegated to the school and ultimately the
headteacher who is best placed to understand the needs of the school. Although staff
selection in government schools is carried out by the TSC in Guyana at the moment, it is
important that you understand the process if you are or become headteacher of a Board
School or Private School. The following pages will explain that process. However, you
should note that, at the time of writing, this is not the normal practice in Guyana in
government schools.
Currently, the appointment of headteachers in Grade A and B schools follows a process
not too dissimilar to the one below. All other posts, including senior ones, are filled using
a procedure which identifies suitability for the position based on the Annual Appraisal
Report for Teachers and other criteria agreed to by the TSC, MoE and GTU.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes

After working through this unit you should be able to:

• be aware of current recruitment practice in Guyana through the TSC
• understand the ideal process of staff selection in Board Schools and Private Schools
• understand the roles of the key figures in selecting staff members.

Types of vacancy
A vacancy may be either permanent or temporary in nature.
Reflect on the type of vacancy that occurs most frequently at your school?
What difference does the type of vacancy make when you are considering an
appointment?
Comments
When any appointment is to be made, it is crucial to ensure that the right person with
the most appropriate skills is appointed.
For a temporary appointment, although this is still important: it will often depend on the
period of time for which the appointment is to be made. Whilst the TSC would try to
appoint someone with the appropriate skills, it may be more important to have a
committed teacher in the classroom rather than leaving the post unfilled simply because
no-one with exactly the right combination of skills can be found.
Assessment of needs
A vacancy on the staff of the school offers an opportunity for a reassessment of needs. In
some cases it will be desirable to find someone who can offer the same combination of
skills as the person who has left the staff; but on many occasions it may be better to
rationalise or to introduce new skills.
Activity 1.1
A teacher has recently resigned from your school.
1
(1) What steps could you take to assess the needs of your school in replacing that
particular teacher?
(2) What factors will influence your assessment of those needs – subject choice, gender,
extra-curricular abilities? List as many as you can. If you are able to relate this to a real
situation, do so.
Comments
As an example, Mathematics may have been fragmented among several members of
staff because it was a subject in which no-one was qualified and which no-one really
wanted to teach. Irrespective of which subjects were taught by the teacher who left the
school, this may be an opportunity to secure the services of a Mathematics
[Link]
In assessing the needs, the headteacher should consult with the rest of the school
management, with the School Board if one exists and with other members of staff who
may be involved in any changes that might be made. It is often not just a case of
replacing the teacher who is leaving but using the departure as an opportunity to
achieve your overall staffing plans.
Creating a staffing shadow structure
Waiting until a vacancy occurs can often be too late in terms of time and the urgency of
the situation to make decisions about what your school’s human resource needs are. It is
essential, therefore, that you are proactive in making plans about what your ideal
staffing structure will be. You are, of course, limited by the National Curriculum and the
staffing allowance of your school. However, within that structure, you need to have a
plan to meet the individual requirements of your school. This is called a “staffing shadow
structure”. It is a plan in waiting for when the opportunity arises, either through
retirement, transfer, sickness or dismissal, for you to achieve the ideal.
Although to a lesser extent in a nursery school because of the limited numbers of staff, it
is equally important in both primary and secondary schools to ensure that you have
achieved the right balance of staff skills to meet the needs of the curriculum. Although in
a primary school, staff will need to have abilities across the curriculum, to have a
Mathematics or English specialist, for example, will be important to guide the rest of the
team. In a secondary school, staff subject specialist skills are essential. As headteacher,
you must eradicate as much as possible the idea of staff teaching subjects in which they
are not qualified.
Advertising the position
In a government school, this will be done by the TSC either as an advert for senior posts
or a pool of teachers who may be transferred to meet the needs. In Board schools, the
BOG will take on the responsibility.
Reflect for a moment on what skills you would like in a science teacher for your
school at this present time. How would you advise the TSC of your
requirements?
Comments
Often posts are advertised in circulars and in newspapers. It is not possible to put all of
the relevant requirements in an advertisement. This is why the job description and
person specification is so important. (See Module One, Unit 4)
Whether the advertisement is placed by the School Board Secretariat or whether
information for an advertisement is submitted to the Teaching Service Commission, care
should be taken that the information submitted is clear, correct, and complete, and that
it is submitted as early as possible. The school should keep a copy of the information
submitted. Some types of appointment will have very short notice periods, while for
others a month's notice or longer is required. But a month does not normally allow
sufficient time for the advertising and filling of the vacancy. The headteacher should
develop an atmosphere among the staff which will encourage them to give notice of
their intention to leave at as early a date as possible, so that the post can be filled with
minimum disruption to the activities of the school.
The requirements for your science teacher will depend on the type of school, the level of
teaching he / she will be expected to do and whether he / she will be required to advise
2
others. When working with the BOG or the TSC, make it very clear what your
requirements are. It will help them and ensure that your needs are met.
Selection
Applicants for a particular post will almost certainly have to complete an application form
or write a letter outlining their suitability for the post.
Try to obtain a copy of an application form that would be used to appoint staff
in your school and study it.
Although you may not have a direct responsibility for selection, it is important that you
understand the process. Ideally, selection should never simply be on the basis of
documents submitted, although these will play an important role. Documents should be
carefully studied to determine:
• whether the applicant appears to meet the advertised requirements.
• whether the applicant meets most of the needs of the job description and person
specification.
• the applicant's previous employment record.
• the qualifications of the applicant.
• the care which the applicant has taken in filling out the application form.
• whether the documents are genuine. Watch out for possible forgeries.
The necessary follow-up should then be undertaken. Applicants who do not meet the
advertised requirements cannot be considered for permanent appointment, while in
some short-term temporary posts exceptions can be made. If copies of certificates are
enclosed, it may be necessary to verify their authenticity, even if they are certified as
true copies.
The previous employment record will indicate whether the applicant's experience
matches his or her qualification. It will also reveal whether the applicant has progressed
from one position of responsibility to another or, on the other hand, whether he or she is
someone who apparently cannot stay in any job for long. If at all possible, the applicant's
manager in the most recent post should be consulted about his or her abilities. A written
record should be kept of these inquiries.
The appearance of the application is important. A candidate who has taken little care
over completing the form and attaching necessary documentation, is not likely to take
much care in lesson preparation or in following up learners' difficulties.
During this sifting exercise, those candidates who are clearly unsuitable will be
eliminated and will be advised accordingly. If many apparently suitable candidates
remain, further sifting can be done by making contact with their former managers. Those
who remain on a short list of suitable candidates should be interviewed for the position.
It is essential that, at all times, throughout the process, dealings with the candidates are
fair and that all have an equal opportunity to be considered for the post on grounds of
age, gender, race and ethnic group.
Use of the Annual Appraisal Report on Teachers
In Guyana, however, the Annual Appraisal Form is used which provides evidence of the
performance of a teacher based on the current system of appraisal. This is scrutinised by
the TSC along with any other evidence. For further information on this process, see Unit
Four of this Module – Staff Appraisal. It is on the basis of this information that the
Teaching Service Commission recommends the transfer of a teacher from one school to
another including promotions.
Interviewing
In non-government schools, applicants who have been short-listed should be advised in
good time of their interview. If at all possible it should be arranged for a time which is not
going to interfere with their present job. Usually around 40 minutes is allowed for the
interview, after which the members of the panel should have about 20 minutes to
discuss their impressions of the applicant before the next interview starts.
Activity 1.2
If you were a member of the interview panel for the science teacher in your school, what
questions would you want to ask the candidates? Remember that as headteacher you
would be more concerned with learning and teaching than other issues which might be
3
dealt with by other panel members.
Comments
The questions you would ask as headteacher would relate to the professional
competence of the candidate, his / her ability to teach, their understanding of the
processes of learning and how they would deal with incidences of indiscipline etc.

Interviewing is normally undertaken by a panel of at least two or three. Too large a panel
might intimidate the candidate, while leaving the interviewing to a single person places
an extremely heavy responsibility on that person. Remember, two headteachers are
better than one. For headteachers in Grade A and B schools, persons from various
organisations such as the TSC and the GTU would form an interviewing panel.
If the interviewing is being done at the school, the panel might consist of members of the
School Board, the headteacher, the Deputy (or a Head of Department in the subject field
for which an appointment is to be made) and a representative of the parent committee.
The members of the panel should decide among themselves who is going to head the
panel for a particular interview. This person will take the lead in asking questions, but
should also give the other members of the panel an opportunity to ask questions.
All members of the panel should be thoroughly familiar with the documents submitted by
the applicant and with the results of any other inquiries which have been made.
The assumption when interviewing starts is that all those to be interviewed are equally
suitable for the position. If this were not the case, the less suitable ones would have
been eliminated without an interview. There are two purposes of the interview – to
confirm the suitability of the candidates; and to distinguish clearly which candidate is
best, which one second best, and so on. This can be done by testing further aspects of
the application such as, presentation and oral skills, abilities of persuasion and
argument, technical ability, subject knowledge and other additional information.
When the applicant is shown in for the interview, he or she should be introduced to the
members of the panel. The headteacher of the panel should engage the interviewee
briefly in casual conversation to establish a relaxed atmosphere.
Questions should focus on the job which the applicant will be expected to perform, and
may take the form of posing problems and asking the applicant how he or she would deal
with them, or of asking how routine tasks would be tackled. For example:
• How would you ensure that all learners in your class were catered for whatever their
level of ability?
• How would you deal with a learner who fails to bring written homework to school, and
says it has been done, but left at home? How would you deal with the same learner the
second time this happens?
• How would you deal with a group of a dozen learners who have performed very poorly
in a test?
• What sort of preparation would you do before conducting a lesson on an English poem?
• How do you integrate theory and laboratory work in the curriculum?
• How would you respond if your Head of Department were to give you what you
considered to be an unfair assignment?
At the end of the interview the applicant should be given the opportunity to ask
questions, then thanked for coming, and advised that the result of the interview will be
communicated as soon as possible.
During the interview and in the course of the discussion which follows it, brief notes
should be made of the applicant's responses to questions. (It might be necessary at a
later stage to remind the successful candidate of a response made during the interview if
he / she fails to perform adequately).
At an interview, what you see and hear and read is what you get. It is your opportunity to
set the expectations of the post. What candidates communicate to you is what you shall
expect of them.
Appointment
After the interviews, the process of appointing the best candidate should be kept as brief
as possible. The best candidate should be contacted soon after the interview, told that
4
he or she is being nominated for the position, and asked whether he/she is likely to
accept. (It may be that the applicant has been short-listed for two or three posts, and
would actually prefer one of the others.) The other candidates should be contacted and
offered a debrief as to why they were not considered suitable on this occasion. They
should be thanked for their time and wish them success in future applications.
Finalising the appointment
The Teaching Service Commission or the Board of Governors has final responsibility for
the selection and appointment of teaching staff. This authority is delegated to an
appropriate official, who will probably not be the same for all levels of posts. For
example, authority to fill a short-term temporary post might rest with one officer and
another might be responsible for the permanent appointment of teachers. A panel is
always responsible for the appointment of a headteacher of a Grade A or B School.
If the power to finalise the appointment does not rest with a member of the interviewing
committee, the necessary documentation and recommendation should be forwarded to
the responsible official as speedily as possible, and if there seems to be undue delay in
acting on the recommendation, the headteacher of the interviewing committee should
follow up, as there is always the danger of a good candidate being lost to another post.
The successful applicant should receive oral confirmation of the appointment as soon as
possible, followed up by a formal letter of appointment (setting out any conditions
attached to the appointment) and a clear job description. The successful applicant
should sign the forms for the acceptance of the post.
Summary
The provision of good human resources in a school, that is the appointment of dedicated,
hard working, motivated and committed staff, will have the greatest impact on the
quality of learning and teaching in the school which in turn will contribute to overall
success for the learners.
It is not a matter which should be left to chance and, although, a headteacher may not,
in all cases, have direct responsibility for appointing staff in Guyana, s(he) must ensure
that those who do are fully appraised of the school’s needs so that they can make the
appropriate decisions. Hence, the completion of a “staffing shadow structure” is
essential so that action can be taken to achieve the best staffing in a short period of
time.
Those responsible for appointments must make them with considerable attention to
detail, ensuring that all have an equal opportunity to be considered whatever their age,
gender, race or ethnic group.

 Unit 2- Staff Development

Introduction
The concept of staff development recognises that all people may improve their
capabilities and become more efficient at what they are doing. Much of the time we are
likely to say “This is an area in which I think I can do better.” We may be aware that we
can improve by observing the performance of others. Sometimes, however, we need
another trusted person to help us identify those areas in which we need to better our
performance. Once we have done this, there are various ways in which we can get others
to assist us in the process of self-development.
Individual study time: 3 hours
Learning outcomes
After working through this unit, you should be able to:
• identify the training needs of your staff
• plan training programmes to meet these needs
• implement a training programme
• evaluate the outcome of such training.
Responsibility for initiating training
Responsibility for initiating training is shared by those in need of training, their
immediate managers, and those in management positions from the district or regional
5
offices and the Ministry of Education and, in particular, the National Centre for
Educational Resource Development (NCERD) which is the organisation responsible for
the in-service training of teachers and school staff.
Those who are in need of development are actually the ones in the best position to
initiate training. Thus teachers are likely to have a fairly strong awareness of their own
training needs. If they wait for others to organise training for them, they may find that
their training needs are not satisfied for a long time, if ever!
Headteachers also have a responsibility in arranging training for themselves and for their
teachers. As the lead professional of the school, he or she has a responsibility for
ensuring that education takes place efficiently. If this is not happening because the
teachers are unskilled or lack confidence, the headteacher should initiate in-service
training.
At the Department of Education, there are officials with a controlling or advisory function
such as the Head of the Departments of Education (REDOs) and District Education
Officers (DEOs). Their job entails ensuring that sound education takes place in their
schools. They, too, have a responsibility for ensuring that staff development is possible
for their teachers and headteachers.
Any one of these parties can sit back and wait for someone else to initiate training, but it
is really a joint responsibility and each of the members of the partnership can be the one
who facilitates staff development.
Identification of needs
We have suggested that the teacher knows in what areas he or she is in need of training.
Similarly, the headteacher and other school leaders will know in what areas of
management they are falling short. Developmental needs are also identified during
supervision.
This intuitive knowledge is not sufficient for the development of a fully adequate training
programme. Detailed questionnaires completed by the teachers will point more clearly to
the areas in which training is needed. But in the absence of a scientific approach a great
deal can be achieved by a group of teachers using brainstorming techniques, provided
they are completely open and honest.

Brainstorming
In brainstorming one member of the group is chosen to write up on a blackboard all the
ideas suggested by the other members of the group. Teachers will call out the problems
they experience, and each will be written down without discussion or comment. When
no-one has any more suggestions, the members of the group will discuss the problems
briefly and group together those that are related. Only after this there is a detailed
discussion of each of the problems and the sort of training which would help to overcome
it. During this discussion there should be no particular reference to the person who first
identified the problem. It is discussed in general terms and as experienced at that
particular school.
Activity 2.1
Consider your area of responsibility and as headteacher, Head of Department, Level
Head etc., list the training needs of the staff members you are responsible for.
Comments
You will have considered many different aspects of their work such as subject knowledge,
ability to teach, understanding of learning techniques and methodology as well as their
ability to assess learner’s work, complete the administration requirements of a teacher
and deal with learner discipline.
Management / administration
Issues identified may include:
• the lack of participation by the staff in management decisions
• poor planning, for example, when dates for important staff and subject meetings are
not set sufficiently far in advance
• poor communications, for example, when staff members are unaware of the details of
6
decisions which affect them.
Didactic
Teachers may feel that they would achieve greater success with their learners if they had
greater competence in teaching methodology. Specific problems may include:
• depending too much on the textbook and using a lecturing approach
• having academic knowledge of a subject but not knowing how to transmit this
knowledge to the learners
• classes being too large for adequate attention to be given to the learners' individual
needs
• learners achieving poor test results, despite seeming to understand their work in class
and doing their homework.
Teaching content
The content to be taught is set out in the syllabus or curriculum guides. Many teachers
depend so heavily on the textbook that they forget that the syllabus and curriculum
guides must be regularly consulted, as this is the document which should determine
what should be covered and how much attention should be given to each aspect. When
there is a change of syllabus or curriculum guides, the teachers may need guidance on
interpreting the new document, and may find that there are sections of the syllabus or
curriculum guide which they simply do not understand because of advances in the
subject since they underwent training.
Whilst some teachers may use a limited range of teaching styles and methodologies,
others may be lacking in their subject knowledge or simply need updating. Also, all
teachers need information on the way learners learn as this is a fast growing topic which
unfolds more and more as further research is done.
Assessment
The syllabus normally has very specific instructions about the way in which assessment
is to take place. Teachers' problems may however be of a very practical nature, such as,
how to:
• get a test or question paper neatly typed and copied
• organise security so that learners do not have access to questions before the time
• keep an accurate record of marks awarded during continuous assessment
• set examination questions that adequately cover the syllabus or curriculum guide.
Child development
Teachers who are either unqualified or who have subject qualifications but do not hold
the Trained Teachers Certificate (TTC) such as TQMs and TUMs may need to learn about
the stages in child development and about how to motivate learners to learn and to
discipline them fairly.
Language
Particularly in Guyana, learners have to work through a medium of instruction which is
not their home language, especially in the Hinterland. Although the subject teacher may
have a good grasp of the subject content and be competent in subject methodology,
little learning may take place as a result of communication problems. Whereas standard
English is the requirement for all official business in Guyana, large numbers of Guyanese
go about their daily lives speaking only Creole or other native languages. Special in-
service training may be needed to overcome this problem.
Activity 2.2
Utilising your list developed in Activity 2.1 group the problems into the areas suggested
above. Rank the list in priority of training needs.
Obtaining assistance

Before looking for outside assistance, the staff of a school should make use of the skills
they have available on the spot. The more experienced teachers on the staff should be
able to help those who are less experienced. Those with higher qualifications should be
able to help those whose training has been less thorough. Even two teachers
experiencing similar problems may, by discussing their problems with each other, be
able to work out a solution.
7
It should be remembered that every member of staff has something to offer his or her
colleagues, and that every member of staff, however competent, can still learn from
others.
All schools in Guyana are required to have regular staff development sessions for the
whole staff. Quality resource persons are often not available, very busy or expensive and
so, the suggestions above are particularly important. There is a wealth of knowledge and
experience on the average staff and teachers should be encouraged to share it
especially when they have been trained in a particular area themselves.
Having grouped the training needs of your colleagues in Activities 2.2, reflect on who
might provide the required in-service training, whether it is an individual, an institution
or even yourself or a member of your staff.
Comments
Once everything possible is being done to use the skills available within the school it
may still be necessary to look further afield for assistance. Outside assistance should in
the first instance be sought from neighbouring schools.
For management problems, the DEO could be called upon to assist, and subject advisers,
where available in NCERD, could be used.
Outside assistance could also be sought from the personnel of the CPCE, of the
University of Guyana and of other ministries (for example, an agricultural officer for
Biology or Agricultural Science) or even individuals from the private sector (a pharmacist
for Science, a journalist for some aspect of language work, a banker for accounting and
so on). Regional co-operation could also be utilised. The use of the community is
essential to provide the widest possible range of experience for your staff. Often such
people are very knowledgeable and are flattered to be asked to play their role in the
education of the nation’s learners.

 Unit 3- Staff Motivation

Introduction

The key to effective leadership is the ability to get results from other people, through
other people and in conjunction with other people. If the underlying psychology is wrong,
the most carefully constructed system and techniques will fail.

An efficient headteacher may not necessarily be an effective headteacher if his or her

relationship with the staff is poor. But if relationships are good and the staff is motivated,
some administrative or environmental flaws will readily be overlooked.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Communication
If the staff is informed about the objectives and the results achieved, they are inclined to
co-operate more and feel that they are part (members) of the staff (group). The opposite
is also true: if the staff do not know what they are supposed to be achieving, they will
show little interest and have little motivation. Staff should not only be informed about
results, but also about changes and progress. The good leader will be an effective
communicator.

Recognition
If the staff members receive the necessary recognition for work done, they will be
inclined to work harder. Recognition should be given to the staff member as a person and
not just as a human resource. This might be done in a variety of ways both formal and
informal. Teachers who have achieved good results who have performed well might be
mentioned in staff meetings or, equally effectively, a quiet word of thanks and praise
could make all the difference to a way a person feels about what they do. Written praise
and recognition is also important as it forms a record and is often seen as having greater
emphasis. This could range from positive entries in the school log book, certificate for
attendance at workshops, articles in the school newsletter or even a merit award for the
8
“teacher of the month” based on issues such as “the best kept classroom”, “the best
learning environment”, “improved attendance and punctuality” and “the most improved
results”. These are all examples tried and tested in some Guyanese schools.

Delegated authority
A headteacher should be prepared to delegate authority to capable people. In this way a
person's post is enhanced, and this serves as a means of personnel development.
Delegated authority also means that more people will be allowed to make decisions
themselves in connection with their work, within set guidelines. See Unit 5, Module 2
Principles of Educational Leadership, for more details on delegation.

Reflecting on your own school situation, what do you consider to be the needs of your
staff. How are these needs met now? How can they be better met in the future?

Comment
When considering the needs of your staff, you will have thought about their personal as
well as professional needs. Although you will be more concerned with the latter, the
school cannot function without personal needs being met. Motivation is often more about
personal than professional. Issues such as remuneration, the need to belong and the
provision of good staff facilities amongst others might all be factors which you may have
identified.

Whether those needs are currently being met in your school is a matter for your own
personal judgement. Be honest, however and give some thought to what the ideal
situation might be and how close you are able to get in achieving it.

Motivating staff
The principles of motivation outlined above indicate that there are a variety of factors
which influence an individual's level of motivation at work. The headteacher, therefore,
should not only have some knowledge of the staff but should bear in mind all the
different factors which can enhance or weaken motivation. These factors can be divided
into four groups: the personal needs of all human beings, factors inherent in the work
situation, management methods and the social system as reflected in the community.
Let us consider each of them.

Personal needs
The needs of every person should be taken into account, such as the need for
recognition, the need to achieve, the need to be a valued person in the community, the
need for self-respect and for friendship. If a teacher occupies a temporary post, there is a
need for work security. Merit awards and promotion can give the necessary recognition of
teachers' achievements. Non-recognition of achievements has a demotivating effect on
teachers and can lead to high staff turnover. A sense of responsibility should be
cultivated as well as pride in the quality of work done.

Work situation
Factors related to the work itself may also affect levels of motivation, for instance, the
nature and type of work, the opportunities for group identity, the chances of promotion,
the work environment, the opportunities and challenges of the work such as the
opportunities for creativity and renewal. Monotony and routine can be demotivating.
Routine work leads to frustration and boredom and to a lack of motivation. One solution
can be to rotate some routine activities so that boring chores do not always have to be
done by the same person.

Management factors
The quality of leadership affects behaviour, attitudes and effort. Positive interpersonal
relationships are regarded as strengthening motivation. In this respect, communication is
of great importance. Teachers like to know and should know what is expected of them
and how their tasks form part of a total plan. This should be coupled with competent and
fair leadership which sets out acceptable tasks together with clear guidelines.

9
The headteacher is responsible for planning, guiding and leading the school. Tasks are
delegated to teachers, and if a participatory management style is used, with teachers'
efforts valued, motivation to work hard is likely to be strong.

Community factors
If the community's values (whether religious, moral, economic, cultural, political or
social) differ from those of the teacher, these community factors will have a
demotivating effect on the teacher. The personal lives of teachers, such as their
relationships with their families, will also influence their behaviour. The headteacher has
little control over such motivating factors, but he or she has to deal with the situation if it
has a negative effect on a teacher's work.

Therefore it would seem that to motivate staff effectively, a headteacher should have
knowledge of their personal needs, their work circumstances, the requirements of the
community, and use an appropriate management style.

Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
• define the meaning of motivation
• understand the principles of motivation and its application
• identify factors which can enhance or weaken levels of motivation.

What is motivation?
Motivation is concerned with the cause of behaviour: why people act, speak or think in a
particular way. Headteachers need to know how to motivate. They need to 'get results
through people' or 'get the best out of people'.

This is most likely to be achieved if the headteacher helps the staff experience job
satisfaction. This is known as intrinsic motivation, which comes from within, and not
extrinsic motivation which is too often based on fear. Results will then be the best that
the teacher can produce and be more likely to be in line with the overall goals and ethos
of the school.

Principles of motivation

Participation
The staff should be involved in decision-making and in matters which affect them
directly. The more the staff becomes involved, the more they will have a sense of
ownership in decisions and be prompted to help in achieving the objectives. Involving
the staff in decision-making does not alter the fact that the headteacher remains
accountable for taking the final decisions and for their results. This is very important.
There should be accountability at all levels. Members of staff are accountable to the
headteacher in all they do. However, it is the responsibility of the headteacher to ensure
that the quality of work carried out by all is of the highest standard. Thus, he / she is
accountable for all that goes on in the school.

Activity 3.1
Imagine a situation where you have encountered a teacher whose learners' academic
results were poor, who was unable to create a positive classroom atmosphere, who had
problems with class discipline and who had very little interest in the extra-curricular
activities of the school. How would you seek to improve this teacher's performance?

Motivation and the Headteacher

We should remember to use the 'motivators', that is, people's need for achievement,
recognition, responsibility, job interest, personal growth and advancement potential. We
tend to underestimate the needs of other people in these areas. Involving others in
decisions which affect them is one way of meeting all or most of these needs.
Headteachers should avoid window-dressing.

The relative intensity of psychological needs will vary greatly from person to person and
from time to time. There are people whose motivation is not work related. If a teacher's
10
spouse loses his or her job, security needs may well be the most important. If there is a
marriage break-up, both security and social needs may surface, though these may be
followed later by a need to find renewed interest and achievement in the job.

These are predictable and often recognisable behavioural phenomena. However, when
symptoms and causes are less obvious, the risk is that we misjudge the needs of
colleagues or friends. Some of us have a tendency to assume that the needs of others
are the same as our own; others tend to assume the opposite.

We should try to suit our management behaviour to both the personalities and the needs
of the situation. Our automatic behavioural reaction may not be the right one. Think
about the alternatives!

Despite every effort, there will remain individuals who have no wish to be 'motivated'
and who view with suspicion any attempt to increase their responsibilities, job interest or
involvement. Such attitudes may typically be found in teachers who are frustrated.
However, the danger is always that we give up too easily. The right approach may
prompt a surprisingly warm response.

Above all, it is necessary for a headteacher to establish by means of honest self-

evaluation what the true nature is of his or her attitude towards staff. It is important that
this introspection is honest and open, because experience has shown that it will
determine the way a headteacher leads and motivates the staff. It is indubitably true
that the way in which headteachers treat their staff will, to a great extent, be determined
by their outlook on life, their attitudes to motivation as the basis of human behaviour,
and the judgement they make of people's behaviour in a specific working situation.

When considering motivation, think firstly of your own needs and try to put yourself “in
the shoes” of the other. If members of staff are behaving badly, are poorly motivated,
underperforming or even showing antagonism towards you, there will be a reason why. It
may be that your attitude towards them or your leadership style creates resentment in
them.

You should always consider this possibility. This does not mean to say, however, that all
demotivating factors are solvable. Issues such as pay, class sizes, working in schools
where the learners are mainly of lower ability may negatively impact on teacher
motivation and there may be little you can do about it.

Summary
As the recognised leader of the school community the headteacher has the responsibility
for helping staff members get satisfaction from their profession and move towards the
fulfilment of their needs and objectives. It is through improving levels of motivation that
these needs and objectives can be met.

It is the responsibility of the headteacher to assess the situation in the school relating to
staff motivation and, where it is having a negative impact on the quality of learning and
teaching and standards generally, to put into place strategies to overcome them.

 Unit 4- Staff Appraisal

Introduction

Staff appraisal is a process of review by teachers, headteachers, Deputy headteachers

and other senior teachers of individual competencies, performance, and professional
needs. In a small school, it is likely to be you, as headteacher, who carries out the
appraisal of staff, but in a large school this may be delegated to the Deputy
headteacher, Senior Master / Mistress or Head of Department. It is a process in which an
individual teacher and a senior colleague collaborate in evaluating that teacher's work as
a professional person. This means appraising all aspects of a teacher's organisation of
their classroom, how they manage classroom activities, including the use of time and

11
materials, how they behave towards learners, other teachers, the headteacher, parents
and the community.

In Guyana, there exists a clear system of the appraisal of staff. In this unit, you will learn
why staff appraisal should be carried out and how to do so. The unit can be used for self
study or with peer group learning with other trainees.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• be aware of the Ministry of Education’s Annual Appraisal Report on Teachers
• understand what staff appraisal is, and why it should be carried out
• know the steps which form the procedures for staff appraisal
• analyse your own leadership style and know which approaches are most effective for
positive staff appraisal
• decide how to follow up a staff appraisal
• understand the need for self-appraisal.

Reasons for appraisal

Appraisal is directed towards helping a teacher to become as effective as possible in the
teaching and learning process, and also towards meeting a teacher's needs for
professional development, for example, in-service training and career prospects. You
should not, therefore, view appraisal as a mechanism for fault-finding and criticising, but
as a means of building the teacher's positive self-image and motivation to be as good a
teacher as possible. In Guyana, education is becoming more learner-centred than
previously, on the basis that learners need to become actively involved in their own
learning processes, in order to learn and develop to the full. Learners and teachers too,
need to participate in their own development, becoming able to analyse and reflect on
their own competencies. From this, they are more likely to become independent thinkers
and doers. For the majority of teachers, this requires a change of attitude, and this can
only come from a willingness to review continually what takes place in the classroom and
the school, and the effects particular actions have on others.

Requirements for appraisal

A good appraisal process, in which the teacher is able to be honest about strengths and
weaknesses, and about where help and encouragement are needed, depends on a spirit
of trust between the headteacher, or other senior teacher, and the teacher being
appraised. It follows that you, or the senior teacher carrying out the appraisal, must be a
professional person who is respected for your competence, and who has a good
relationship with the staff.

This means that if you have to give criticism for lateness or lack of preparation in the
classroom, you give it with the understanding that the particular teacher needs
guidance. Thus, your comments will not be made in an unkind manner, but with the
intention of being constructive. This should be the case even where a teacher refuses or
is unable to change unacceptable behaviour, and you need to initiate disciplinary action
in the interests of the learners. If you are seen to be a person who really knows the
teacher, the learners and the classroom reality, and you are known to be a person who
has respect for the feelings of teachers and learners, appraisal is more likely to take
place in a spirit of mutual confidence.

Differences from other forms of evaluation

Appraisal in Guyana is undertaken as a means of assessment of a teacher for purposes
of rating or grading and also for recommendation for promotion to a higher position. It is
a very different process from being inspected by the METSTeam or monitored by a
person in higher authority. It is therefore important that appraisal is not carried out in a
negative spirit of sitting in judgement or it will fail in its purpose. Instead, the teacher
should be treated as a stakeholder in the educational process, working in a collaborative
way to become as good as possible, and as a person who has professional needs and
12
interests. Your role as headteacher in this, is that of educational leader in the school,
with the task of creating an effective learning environment for all learners, of all abilities,
and with varying needs that should be met. The teacher being appraised shares this
task.

The process of staff appraisal

There are a number of steps to be taken in carrying out staff appraisal. Before these can
begin, you need to have discussions with the staff as a whole. Teachers need to be
confident that they can be open with you so that if they feel the leadership style is
inappropriate, they can say this in the knowledge that you and other members of the
leadership team will review your own style.

A second important element is to emphasise that what is said during the process of
appraisal will be treated as confidential. A teacher who reveals personal insecurity or
details of an unhappy domestic life during discussion needs to feel sure that this will not
become common knowledge in the staff room or community. Professional ambitions, too,
have a right to be kept private. Appraisal should not be used as a means of making
comparisons between one teacher and another.

Establishing a good atmosphere

In the first stage of discussion with staff concerning appraisal, you will need to make
clear the purpose, and how it is to be done. The actual procedures should be discussed
and staff ideas taken into account. A timetable needs to be drawn up, so that each
teacher has time to prepare his or her own thoughts, knowing when you will carry out
observations within specific classrooms, and when interviews will be held. Follow-up
procedures should be discussed, in which actions will be initiated, for example, planning
for in-service training.

You, or the senior staff member to whom you have delegated the task or designated
senior staff, should prepare for the whole process by analysing your attitudes to
leadership. Appraisal is a natural part of the professional development of a teacher. It is
quite separate and different from the supervisory role of a headteacher. It should be
viewed as a professional partnership in which the person leading the appraisal will seek
out the abilities of those being appraised rather than searching for incompetence. The
whole process must be one which is based on trust.

Your attitudes in this area are important in determining whether staff appraisal is likely to
be a positive process of staff development or treated with suspicion. If it is the latter you
may need to consider changing your leadership style.

The teacher's own assessment

The process begins with the teacher's own personal review of successes, failures,
professional and personal needs. One method that is often used is to encourage teachers
to go through a process of self evaluation where they will comment on their own
successes and weaknesses on a regular basis. A teacher's everyday life is normally so
busy that, unless time is set aside for this, the important activity of reflection gets set
aside. A teacher might write as follows:

'Today, I began to feel that teaching the whole class together in Mathematics left some
learners bored. The clever ones finished their work very quickly, and got it right, and
then misbehaved, while some of the others were so slow and did not seem to
understand. I would like to organise them in groups but I am not sure how to do it. How
will I make sure that all the class is getting on with their work if I do not have them all
facing the blackboard?'

Lesson observations
A good headteacher will visit classrooms on a regular basis. You will have found that this
helps you to be knowledgeable about what is happening in the school. Lesson
observations in staff appraisal may well be already part of the school's routine. For the
purpose of staff appraisal, you need to arrange a time to observe a specific lesson. You
13
should be present in the classroom for the whole period to observe the entire sequence
of the lesson. Only then can you form your ideas about the preparation, organisation and
management of teaching and learning in the classroom.

The questions which follow may be helpful in providing a structure for lesson
observations.

1. Is the classroom a clean, safe and child friendly environment?

2. Would a learner find the classroom a pleasant place to be in?

3. Does the teacher begin the lesson on time?

4. Has the lesson been well prepared and does it match with the syllabus or
scheme of work?

5. Are all materials shown in the lesson plan available to the learners?

6. What is the quality of the relationship between teacher and learners?

7. Do learners listen when the teacher speaks, and do they appear to respect
the teacher without seeming afraid?

8. Does the organisation and management (whole class work, group work,
individual activity, practical activity, etc.) meet the needs of the learners and
the subject area?

9. Are all learners in the class, including those with Special Educational Needs
being catered for?

10. Is learning taking place?

In practical terms, it will be helpful for you to design a proforma which will be used by all
staff when conducting lesson observations in appraisal.

Your responses to these questions will provide you with important information concerning
the teacher's ability to provide learners with good quality teaching. If you observe poor
preparation or interaction with learners, these may indicate that the teacher has other
problems. These may concern discipline or complaints from parents or community, for
example, about lateness or attendance. Such information provides other data that needs
to be discussed in the appraisal interview.

Appraisal interview and target setting

The report back on the lesson observation should take place as soon as possible after the
observation and, where time allows, immediately after the lesson has taken place. If this
is not possible, it should be done no later than the next day as this can be a worrying
time for some teachers. In addition, there will need to be a formal Appraisal Interview. It
is possible for both discussions to take place at the same meeting. The form and length
of the interview can vary, but there should be discussion of the classroom observations.
Since the purpose is to assist the teacher's professional development and enhance the
learning experiences for the learners, the approach should be positive. Praise should be
given for as much as possible, for example, 'I noticed how busy you were trying to keep
the learners with higher ability occupies whilst those with lower ability were finishing
their work'. The aim is to build the teacher's confidence and self esteem because,
through this, the teacher is more likely to discuss uncertainties about his or her work. In
the example of the self evaluation quoted earlier, you and the teacher may then go on to
discuss ways of grouping learners to provide for different ability levels.

From the discussion in the interview, targets can be set. You can arrange for help to be
offered within the school, or for other in-service training. You can encourage the teacher
to try out other methods of working, with the assurance that there will be full support

14
during a time of change. Managing change can be stressful for a teacher, because of a
fear of failure and many people prefer not to take risks.

Some avoidance behaviour, for example, lateness, absenteeism or alcohol abuse, can
stem from feelings of inadequacy. The teacher whose lesson is badly prepared, can be
asked if he or she thinks that the lesson would have been better if he or she had not
been late. This opens up the subject, but in a positive spirit, which is more likely to lead
to full and frank discussion of the teacher's professional responsibilities. Here, targets
can be set which must be realistic, and any improvement should be commented on, for
example, 'You were only late one day this week. Keep trying, the teaching was much
better'. In this way, the teacher's morale can be raised and, for some, can be sufficient to
bring about real improvement.

The Annual Appraisal Report on Teachers and Senior Leaders

In Guyana, teachers are asked to make a self assessment of their performance and this
is verified by their line manager or headteacher. The teacher must sign in agreement
with the conclusions made. The judgements about how a teacher has performed are
grouped into the following areas:-
• Knowledge
• Methodology
• Human Relationships
• Output
• Professionalism

And the following are used for senior leaders:

• Job Knowledge
• Supervision
• Organisations
• Administration Leadership
• Professionalism
• Staff Development
• Curriculum Implementation
• Evaluation
• Human Relationships
• Support Services

Section F of the appraisal gives an overall evaluation of the teacher’s performance

ranging from outstanding to unacceptable. Note is also made of relevant staff
development.

Teachers are given a grade at the end of each appraisal and this grade is used in senior
promotion as an Annual Confidential Report (A.C.R.) Grades are recorded for the last
three years prior to an application. Points are awarded for each grade e.g A = 30 points,
B = 18 points, C = 12 points. Completion of the Education Management Certificate that
you are currently studying will give an award of 6 points.

Follow-up meetings
An important point about the appraisal process is that it should be an ongoing process.
In-service training arrangements may be initiated, discussion of improvements in
teaching and learning in the classroom may take place, or a teacher may need to be
encouraged to seek promotion. All such activities are part of your professional
responsibilities as educational leader in the school. In the large school, part of this task
will be shared by senior staff.

Activity 4.1
The case study below will help you to practise your appraisal knowledge and skills before
you begin work with your school staff.

Case study

11. Obtain a copy of the Annual Appraisal Report for Teachers and study it.
15
 12. In your observation of a lesson in a teacher’s classroom, you have
noted as follows:

“The teacher started this lesson punctually. Her explanations to her Grade 4 class were
clear, and she revised the pocedures for carrying out division by 10. She chose two
learners to work out examples on the board and then gave all the class four examples to
work out on their own in their books. During this time, she walked round the classroom,
looking at learners’ work. After ten minuted, six learners had finished their work while all
the rest were still working. The six early finishers began to misbehave, tickling other
learners. She spoke sternly to the six, and told them to sit still and be quiet. At the end of
the lesson, most of the class had not finished.”

There are many different ways that you could approach feedback to the teacher on her
lesson. Consider these two possible forms of advice that you might have given …..

13. Ask the teacher how she felt about her lesson and listen to her
description of her worries. Discuss these with her, and suggest ways of
grouping the class according to mathematical ability, with different work or
amount for each group. Ask her if she would like help in doing this.

14. Tell the teacher that she should become angry with the slow workers
and tell them to hurry up. Tell her that you are not satisfied with her work
and that she must make sure that learners do not misbehave. Inform her that
you expect better performance from her in the next appraisal.

If you were this teacher, which of the two approaches would you find more helpful?

Comment
We are confident, of course, that you will have chosen number one. Of the two
approaches, it is non-threatening, supportive and helpful. It is only in this background of
professional cooperation that you will get teachers to open up and disclose the issues
that might be preventing then from achieving the high standards you require.

Professional development activities

Some professional development activities can be carried out within the school, for
example, the Head of Department provides assistance in improving the teacher's skills in
classroom management. Others may require that you ask the District Education Officer
or a Curriculum Specialist from NCERD to arrange in-service training in a workshop. The
teacher, following appraisal, may show leadership potential, and this information should
be shared, with the permission of the teacher, with those responsible for making
decisions about promotion, such as the T.S.C.

Frequency of appraisal
In Guyana, an appraisal report is prepared on an annual basis. However, the observation
of lessons should be done much more regularly. We would advise that formal observation
should take place termly by the Head of Department, Level Head or more senior staff.
Informal observation when a manager simply watches what is going on around them,
would take place every week if not every day.

Benefits of appraisal
The benefits of staff appraisal have been referred to throughout in this unit. Module 6,
Monitoring School Effectiveness, demonstrates the use of guidance and counselling from
a headteacher following classroom observations. School effectiveness includes a
combination of the way in which the work of individual teachers and senior management
within the school collaborate for the benefit of the learners. Under the headings of 'Staff
needs' and 'The needs of the learners' (Unit 3), Module 1, Self-Development for
Educational Leaders’, outlines the mission of the school, which is also the mission of the
headteacher and all teachers. Module 1 also notes the importance of the headteacher
giving positive professional guidance if staff are to perform their function effectively.

16
The benefits can be summarised as:
• skills development, through in-service training, experiments with teaching style, often
assisted by organisational change
• career development, through in-service training
• improved relationships: each understands the other better
• increased knowledge of the school and individuals
• productive links between appraisal and school development and planning
• improved learning opportunities for learners
• improved morale and efficiency within the school.

Summary
When carried out in a spirit of willing co-operation, with positive attitudes on both sides,
you should find that staff appraisal contributes to school effectiveness. To be successful
and have the desired benefits, you must examine closely your own style of leadership.
Does this provide for a shared sense of responsibility amongst all school staff? All staff
members are stakeholders in the educational life of the school, and are more likely to be
motivated to improve their performance, if they feel a sense of ownership. You, in turn,
will feel supported in your often difficult and lonely task.

 Unit 5: Staff Guidance and Discipline

Introduction

Because all the activities of the school remain your responsibility, you need to ensure
that delegated tasks are actually carried out on time, and in a proper manner. Therefore,
you need to oversee and monitor the work of others in the school. This requires the
ability to guide, support and, when necessary, discipline staff.

The purpose of this unit is to help you develop the skills of staff guidance and discipline
so that you can maintain high standards of performance and behaviour in your school.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
After working through this unit, you should be able to:
• distinguish between guidance, supervision, and discipline
• understand the importance of monitoring and guiding staff performance
• identify appropriate procedures for dealing with disciplinary matters
• apply guidance and disciplinary measures fairly and effectively.

The need for guidance

Because the learning and all the activities of the school remain your responsibility, you
need
to ensure that delegated tasks are actually carried out on time, and in a proper manner.
Therefore, you need to guide, to supervise, to oversee, the work of others in the school.
Through meeting your senior leadership team, individually or in groups, you will get
feedback on the administrative functioning of the school, including curriculum
implementation and development. By being active within the school, by visiting classes,
by
observing lessons, talking to teachers, learners and parents, you keep yourself informed
about the school community, its people and events. Problems can often be prevented,
simply because the headteacher keeps, as they say, his or her 'ear to the ground'. At
the
same time, you are setting a good example to others of self-discipline.

Discipline
Reflect for a moment on the rules in your school appertaining to staff that everyone
agrees on.
17
Comments
Discipline is concerned with the establishment and maintenance of order and the
harmonious functioning of a society. A school is also a society on a small scale, and
discipline within school serves the purpose of ensuring that learning can take place.
Within this, the rights of the individual and of all members of the school society are
protected. In most schools, a set of rules which act as a code of conduct is drawn up to
which learners must conform. Such rules should be as few as possible, and should be
reasonable. Learners should be involved in drawing up school rules.

In the case of rules for teaching staff, they should be drawn up and agreed by the staff
as far as is possible. In doing this, you may want to involve the Guyana Teachers’ Union
(GTU) so that there is full co-operation. Staff meetings can include on the agenda items
designed to help teachers find positive ways to deal with school matters. In Guyana
where corporal punishment is discouraged, such discussions can be helpful to teachers
seeking to establish their authority in positive ways.

Exercising responsibility
In an ideal world, you would be able to trust all staff to carry out their designated
responsibilities in teaching, administration or in care of the learners without supervision.
For good teachers who are positively motivated, your trust will be justified. Such
teachers arrive in good time before the start of school, they are absent only with good
cause, their lessons are well prepared, they treat learners with respect for them as
persons, yet are firm and clear in giving instructions or information.

However, not all teachers are as good as this. A few are unskilled, some have personal
problems, some are weak teachers and a very small number are dishonest both with
their time and actions. Of these, some will improve with guidance, encouragement and
support, others with sympathy and understanding, but you may need to take disciplinary
action with the uncooperative, unskilled or teacher with a poor disposition to work. Your
reactions will depend on your perception of the teacher and the problem.

Activity 5.1
Reflect on your role as headteacher or senior teacher. How often do you observe the
work of other teachers? What methods do you use to guide and support them?

Comments
Many headteachers find that due to administrative duties they seldom have time to
observe teachers or give them feedback. However, effective schools are those where
headteachers are actively involved in monitoring teaching and learning. Guidance can
take the form of informal discussions, classroom visits, or planned professional
development sessions.

Monitoring staff performance

Monitoring is an essential part of school management. It enables you to assess whether
staff are fulfilling their duties and whether learners are benefiting from effective
teaching. Monitoring should be continuous, fair, and based on objective information.

You can monitor performance through:

• regular classroom visits and lesson observations
• review of lesson plans and records
• assessment of learners’ progress and results
• checking punctuality and attendance records
• regular staff meetings and reports.

Feedback should always be constructive. When weaknesses are identified, offer support
and guidance rather than criticism. Encourage teachers to reflect on their performance
and suggest ways to improve.

18
Providing guidance
Staff guidance involves helping teachers to understand their strengths and weaknesses
and assisting them to improve their teaching skills, attitudes, and professional behaviour.
This can be done through:
• individual coaching or mentoring
• peer observation and feedback
• professional development workshops
• joint lesson planning and discussions
• constructive feedback after classroom observations.

Effective guidance depends on mutual respect, trust, and open communication. Teachers
are more likely to accept advice when they feel that it is intended to help them and not
to find fault.

Dealing with unacceptable behaviour

Sometimes the behaviour of a teacher or other member of staff is unacceptable and
cannot be ignored. The causes of the behaviour must be determined. If these are not
identified, it will be impossible to deal with them effectively. The causes may include lack
of skills or ability, lack of motivation, poor attitude to work, family or financial problems,
alcohol or drug abuse, or simply an unwillingness to accept authority.

When the cause is known, you can decide what action to take. If the problem is lack of
ability or skill, guidance and support are appropriate. If it is poor motivation, you can
work to find ways of motivating the teacher. If it is a poor attitude to work, a formal
discussion is needed. If it is a disciplinary matter, you will have to take formal disciplinary
action.

Disciplinary procedures are designed to maintain order and standards of conduct and to
encourage improvement. They should be applied fairly and consistently. The Guyana
Public Service Rules and the Ministry of Education’s Staff Code provide detailed guidance
on the procedures to be followed. You should ensure that you are familiar with these
documents.

When a teacher behaves inappropriately, it is important to act quickly but fairly. Delay
can cause the situation to worsen, and unfair action can lead to resentment.

Principles of effective discipline

Effective discipline should:
• be based on established rules and procedures
• be applied consistently and fairly
• aim to correct behaviour, not to punish
• be proportionate to the offence
• give the staff member an opportunity to explain his or her actions
• be properly documented.

When dealing with disciplinary matters, always remain calm, objective, and professional.
Avoid emotional reactions or personal attacks. The goal is to improve behaviour and
maintain the dignity of all concerned.

Steps in disciplinary action

When misconduct occurs, the following steps are generally followed:

1. Informal discussion – Minor issues such as lateness or poor punctuality

should first be addressed informally through private discussion and advice.

2. Verbal warning – If the behaviour continues, a formal verbal warning may

be given. This should be recorded in the teacher’s file.

3. Written warning – Persistent or more serious offences require a written

warning, clearly stating the nature of the misconduct and the consequences
of further breaches.

19
 4. Formal disciplinary hearing – For serious offences such as
insubordination, neglect of duty, or misconduct, a formal hearing should be
held according to the Ministry’s procedures.

5. Recommendation for suspension or dismissal – If necessary, the case

may be referred to the Teaching Service Commission or relevant authority for
further action.

At every stage, ensure that the staff member is aware of the complaint, has an
opportunity to respond, and is treated fairly.

Activity 5.2
Describe a situation in which you, as a headteacher or senior teacher, had to take
disciplinary action against a member of staff. What steps did you follow? What was the
outcome?

Comments
You will probably have found that a calm, fair, and respectful approach helps to resolve
most disciplinary issues without damaging relationships. Discipline is most effective
when it is seen as a means of improvement, not punishment.

Promoting a positive school climate

The best way to avoid disciplinary problems is to create a positive Band supportive
school climate where teachers are motivated, valued, and respected. This can be
achieved by:
• setting clear expectations for performance and conduct
• recognising and rewarding good work
• maintaining open communication channels
• providing opportunities for professional growth
• leading by example in punctuality, fairness, and professionalism.

When teachers feel appreciated and involved in decision-making, they are more likely to
take pride in their work and maintain high standards.

Summary
As headteacher, you are responsible for maintaining high standards of performance and
discipline among your staff. Guidance and supervision help teachers to improve and
grow professionally, while fair and consistent discipline ensures that rules and standards
are upheld.

Remember that discipline is not an end in itself but a means of helping teachers become
more effective. A headteacher who combines firmness with understanding will earn the
respect and cooperation of the staff, leading to a harmonious and productive school
environment.

 Unit 6: Keeping Staff Records

Introduction
Records in a school contain important information about school administration and the
staff. They are used as reference points for decision-making, planning, and reporting.
The proper keeping of staff records is therefore an essential function of school
management. As a headteacher, you are responsible for ensuring that staff records are
accurate, up to date, and securely maintained.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
After working through this unit, you should be able to:
• understand the importance of staff records in school administration
• identify the types of staff records that should be kept in the school

20
• maintain an effective system of managing and storing staff records
• recognise the principles of confidentiality and security in record keeping.

The Purposes of staff records

The effective running of a school depends on the availability of accurate and reliable
information. Staff records are needed for a variety of reasons. They provide information
about teachers’ qualifications, experience, performance, attendance, and personal
details. These records are used for promotion, transfer, and training purposes.

Staff records help in monitoring staff performance and identifying professional

development needs. They are also used to prepare reports for the Ministry of Education,
the Regional Education Department, or the Teaching Service Commission. In addition,
they assist in resolving disputes or clarifying misunderstandings about duties,
entitlements, or disciplinary matters.

Proper record keeping contributes to transparency, accountability, and efficiency in

school management. It allows the headteacher to make informed decisions based on
facts rather than assumptions.

Types of staff records

A school should maintain a comprehensive and organised set of staff records. The
following are some of the key types of records that should be kept:

1. Personal file – Each staff member should have an individual file containing
personal and professional details such as:

 Full name, address, and date of birth

 Qualifications and certificates

 Employment history

 Appointment letter

 Job description

 Record of promotions and transfers

 Leave records

 Disciplinary actions (if any)

 Copies of appraisal reports

 Emergency contact information

2. Attendance register – This shows the daily attendance of all teaching and
non-teaching staff. It records punctuality, absences, and reasons for leave.
The attendance register helps to monitor staff reliability and ensure
accountability.

3. Leave register – A separate register should record all types of leave taken
by staff members such as sick leave, vacation leave, study leave, or
maternity leave. It should include the duration and approval details.

4. Staff movement book – This book records the movement of staff in and out
of the school premises during working hours, for example, when attending
workshops or official duties outside of school.

5. Staff development record – This record includes information on in-service

training, workshops, courses, and professional development activities
attended by staff members. It helps in planning future training needs and
identifying those eligible for promotion.

21
 6. Appraisal record – This includes copies of annual appraisal forms,
observation notes, and feedback reports. These are used for evaluating
performance and making recommendations for career advancement.

7. Salary and benefits record – Information on salary scales, increments,

allowances, deductions, and other entitlements should be kept in a secure
file. This record helps to clarify any queries about payments.

8. Medical record – Some basic medical information should be retained for

emergencies, such as known health conditions or allergies. This must be
handled confidentially.

9. Correspondence file – This contains letters and memoranda between the

school, the Ministry of Education, the Teaching Service Commission, and
other bodies relating to staff matters.

10. Staff register – This provides a summary of all staff members

currently employed at the school, including their designations, subjects
taught, qualifications, and dates of appointment.

Activity 6.1
List the types of staff records that are currently kept in your school. Compare them with
those listed above. Identify any that are missing or not properly maintained.

Comments
You will probably have discovered that while some records are well maintained, others
may not exist or may be incomplete. The challenge for you as a headteacher is to ensure
that all essential records are created and maintained accurately and regularly updated.

The process of record keeping

Keeping staff records involves several key steps:

11. Collection of data – Information about staff members should be

obtained from reliable sources such as application forms, appointment
letters, and official correspondence.

12. Recording – The information should be entered systematically into

files, registers, or electronic databases. Records should be dated and
properly labelled for easy reference.

13. Updating – Records must be updated whenever there are changes in

staff details such as address, qualifications, promotions, or training.
Outdated information can lead to errors in decision-making.

14. Storage – Records should be stored in a secure location such as a

locked filing cabinet or a password-protected digital system. They must be
organised in a way that allows easy retrieval when needed.

15. Retention and disposal – Some records should be kept permanently,

such as appointment letters and certificates, while others, like leave forms,
can be disposed of after a certain period. Disposal should be done in a way
that protects confidentiality.

Principles of confidentiality and security

Staff records often contain sensitive personal information. It is therefore essential to
maintain confidentiality and protect these records from unauthorised access. Only
authorised personnel, such as the headteacher, deputy headteacher, or administrative
officer, should handle staff files.

Staff should be informed about the type of information kept about them and the purpose
for which it is used. This helps to build trust and transparency. Records should never be
used to embarrass, punish, or discriminate against any staff member.

22
If records are kept electronically, ensure that computers are protected with passwords
and that data is backed up regularly. Paper files should be kept in locked cabinets, and
keys should be stored securely.

Using records for decision-making

The purpose of record keeping is not just storage, but also the use of information for
effective decision-making. Accurate staff records can help you to:
• identify staff training needs
• prepare appraisal and performance reports
• plan for staff replacement and succession
• ensure fairness in promotions and rewards
• verify staff attendance and punctuality
• provide information to the Ministry of Education and other authorities when required.

Regular analysis of staff data can reveal patterns such as frequent absenteeism, high
turnover, or training gaps, which can then be addressed through appropriate strategies.

Activity 6.2
Examine the staff records at your school and identify three ways in which they could be
used to improve the management of your school.

Comments
You may have identified, for example, that accurate records can help in improving
teacher punctuality, planning professional development, or ensuring fairness in
promotions. Remember that the usefulness of records depends on their accuracy and
accessibility.

Problems in maintaining records

In some schools, record keeping is neglected due to lack of time, poor organisation, or
inadequate storage facilities. Sometimes, records are misplaced or incomplete. This can
create serious difficulties when information is needed urgently.

To avoid these problems:

• Assign specific responsibility for maintaining staff records to a reliable person, such as
an administrative assistant or clerk.
• Conduct regular audits of school records to ensure they are up to date.
• Train staff on the importance of accurate record keeping.
• Develop a filing system that is logical and easy to use.
• Ensure that backup copies are kept safely in case of fire, flood, or other emergencies.

Summary
Keeping staff records is a vital aspect of effective school management. Accurate and up-
to-date records enable informed decision-making, promote accountability, and support
staff development. The headteacher must ensure that systems are in place for collecting,
recording, storing, and using staff information securely and efficiently.

Proper record keeping reflects professionalism and helps to maintain confidence among
staff, parents, and the education authorities. It is an ongoing process that contributes
directly to the smooth functioning of the school and the achievement of its educational
goals.

Introduction
Records in a school contain important information about school administration and the
staff. They are used as reference points for decision-making, planning, and reporting.
The proper keeping of staff records is therefore an essential function of school
management. As a headteacher, you are responsible for ensuring that staff records are
accurate, up to date, and securely maintained.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
After working through this unit, you should be able to:
23
• understand the importance of staff records in school administration
• identify the types of staff records that should be kept in the school
• maintain an effective system of managing and storing staff records
• recognise the principles of confidentiality and security in record keeping.

The importance of staff records

The effective running of a school depends on the availability of accurate and reliable
information. Staff records are needed for a variety of reasons. They provide information
about teachers’ qualifications, experience, performance, attendance, and personal
details. These records are used for promotion, transfer, and training purposes.

Staff records help in monitoring staff performance and identifying professional

development needs. They are also used to prepare reports for the Ministry of Education,
the Regional Education Department, or the Teaching Service Commission. In addition,
they assist in resolving disputes or clarifying misunderstandings about duties,
entitlements, or disciplinary matters.

Proper record keeping contributes to transparency, accountability, and efficiency in

school management. It allows the headteacher to make informed decisions based on
facts rather than assumptions.

Types of staff records

A school should maintain a comprehensive and organised set of staff records. The
following are some of the key types of records that should be kept:

16. Personal file – Each staff member should have an individual file
containing personal and professional details such as:

 Full name, address, and date of birth

 Qualifications and certificates

 Employment history

 Appointment letter

 Job description

 Record of promotions and transfers

 Leave records

 Disciplinary actions (if any)

 Copies of appraisal reports

 Emergency contact information

17. Attendance register – This shows the daily attendance of all

teaching and non-teaching staff. It records punctuality, absences, and
reasons for leave. The attendance register helps to monitor staff reliability
and ensure accountability.

18. Leave register – A separate register should record all types of leave
taken by staff members such as sick leave, vacation leave, study leave, or
maternity leave. It should include the duration and approval details.

19. Staff movement book – This book records the movement of staff in
and out of the school premises during working hours, for example, when
attending workshops or official duties outside of school.

20. Staff development record – This record includes information on in-

service training, workshops, courses, and professional development activities
attended by staff members. It helps in planning future training needs and
identifying those eligible for promotion.

24
 21. Appraisal record – This includes copies of annual appraisal forms,
observation notes, and feedback reports. These are used for evaluating
performance and making recommendations for career advancement.

22. Salary and benefits record – Information on salary scales,

increments, allowances, deductions, and other entitlements should be kept
in a secure file. This record helps to clarify any queries about payments.

23. Medical record – Some basic medical information should be retained

for emergencies, such as known health conditions or allergies. This must be
handled confidentially.

24. Correspondence file – This contains letters and memoranda between

the school, the Ministry of Education, the Teaching Service Commission, and
other bodies relating to staff matters.

25. Staff register – This provides a summary of all staff members

currently employed at the school, including their designations, subjects
taught, qualifications, and dates of appointment.

Activity 6.1
List the types of staff records that are currently kept in your school. Compare them with
those listed above. Identify any that are missing or not properly maintained.

Comments
You will probably have discovered that while some records are well maintained, others
may not exist or may be incomplete. The challenge for you as a headteacher is to ensure
that all essential records are created and maintained accurately and regularly updated.

The process of record keeping

Keeping staff records involves several key steps:

26. Collection of data – Information about staff members should be

obtained from reliable sources such as application forms, appointment
letters, and official correspondence.

27. Recording – The information should be entered systematically into

files, registers, or electronic databases. Records should be dated and
properly labelled for easy reference.

28. Updating – Records must be updated whenever there are changes in

staff details such as address, qualifications, promotions, or training.
Outdated information can lead to errors in decision-making.

29. Storage – Records should be stored in a secure location such as a

locked filing cabinet or a password-protected digital system. They must be
organised in a way that allows easy retrieval when needed.

30. Retention and disposal – Some records should be kept permanently,

such as appointment letters and certificates, while others, like leave forms,
can be disposed of after a certain period. Disposal should be done in a way
that protects confidentiality.

Principles of confidentiality and security

Staff records often contain sensitive personal information. It is therefore essential to
maintain confidentiality and protect these records from unauthorised access. Only
authorised personnel, such as the headteacher, deputy headteacher, or administrative
officer, should handle staff files.

Staff should be informed about the type of information kept about them and the purpose
for which it is used. This helps to build trust and transparency. Records should never be
used to embarrass, punish, or discriminate against any staff member.

25
If records are kept electronically, ensure that computers are protected with passwords
and that data is backed up regularly. Paper files should be kept in locked cabinets, and
keys should be stored securely.

Using records for decision-making

The purpose of record keeping is not just storage, but also the use of information for
effective decision-making. Accurate staff records can help you to:
• identify staff training needs
• prepare appraisal and performance reports
• plan for staff replacement and succession
• ensure fairness in promotions and rewards
• verify staff attendance and punctuality
• provide information to the Ministry of Education and other authorities when required.

Regular analysis of staff data can reveal patterns such as frequent absenteeism, high
turnover, or training gaps, which can then be addressed through appropriate strategies.

Activity 6.2
Examine the staff records at your school and identify three ways in which they could be
used to improve the management of your school.

Comments
You may have identified, for example, that accurate records can help in improving
teacher punctuality, planning professional development, or ensuring fairness in
promotions. Remember that the usefulness of records depends on their accuracy and
accessibility.

Problems in maintaining records

In some schools, record keeping is neglected due to lack of time, poor organisation, or
inadequate storage facilities. Sometimes, records are misplaced or incomplete. This can
create serious difficulties when information is needed urgently.

To avoid these problems:

• Assign specific responsibility for maintaining staff records to a reliable person, such as
an administrative assistant or clerk.
• Conduct regular audits of school records to ensure they are up to date.
• Train staff on the importance of accurate record keeping.
• Develop a filing system that is logical and easy to use.
• Ensure that backup copies are kept safely in case of fire, flood, or other emergencies.

Summary
Keeping staff records is a vital aspect of effective school management. Accurate and up-
to-date records enable informed decision-making, promote accountability, and support
staff development. The headteacher must ensure that systems are in place for collecting,
recording, storing, and using staff information securely and efficiently.

Proper record keeping reflects professionalism and helps to maintain confidence among
staff, parents, and the education authorities. It is an ongoing process that contributes
directly to the smooth functioning of the school and the achievement of its educational
goals.

 Managing Meetings
Introduction
Unit 7
Headteachers should see themselves as managers and should use their resources
(people, money, property and time) effectively and efficiently to ensure that the
school is and stays productive and profitable from an educational perspective.
Meetings are an essential practical aspect of managing a school. Used as
management tools they can be very beneficial but all too often they do not achieve
the results intended. Holding effective meetings does not depend on intuition and
good fortune but on effective leadership and management skills.
26
Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
• understand the reasons for holding meetings
• understand the roles of the key players at a meeting
• plan meetings for different purposes
• conduct a meeting efficiently and effectively
• ensure participation in a meeting.

Attitudes to meetings
The success of every meeting depends on the co-operation and support the chairperson
receives from the participants. The chairperson should thus be fully aware of people's
attitudes to meetings.

Give some thought to the diverse attitudes different people will have to meetings.

Comment
Persons will have opinions which range from considering all meetings to be unnecessary
to others who thrive on the opportunity to have a captive audience and force their views
on others. The success of meetings, therefore, will depend on your motivating those who
do not want to be there and limiting those who want to take over.

Let us consider the factors which contribute to successful meetings.

• Clear definition of purpose: It is clearly stated what the committee and its members are
supposed to do and what its goals are.
• Careful time control: Meetings start and end on time, with enough time allowed to get
the work done and no more.
• Opinions respected: Meeting members listen and are sensitive to each other's needs
and opinions.
• Informal atmosphere: Participants are encouraged to contribute to the discussion when
the atmosphere is informal rather than being a formal exchange.
• Good preparation: Both chairperson and meeting members are well prepared, any
materials required being available.
• Commitment: The members are qualified and interested, wanting to be a part of the
meeting.
• No distractions: Interruptions are avoided or kept to a minimum.
• Record keeping: Good minutes or records are kept so that decisions are not lost, so
there is no need to search out what decisions were made at the last meeting.
• Recognition of effort: Meeting members feel that they receive some kind of reward for
their efforts, when their contributions are recognised and appreciated.
• Management response: The work of the meeting is accepted and used, making a real
contribution to the school.

There are, however, many reasons that persons have for not liking meetings, the
following are perhaps amongst the most common:
• Poor leadership: The leader does not keep the discussion on the subject and so fails to
keep things moving in the appropriate direction and to engage in those aspects of the
discussion that are stimulating and motivating to the members.
• Goals are unclear: Members are not really sure what they are trying to accomplish.
• Lack of commitment: Assignments are not taken seriously by committee members.
• No clear focus: For example, 'What are we supposed to be doing today?'
• Recommendations ignored: Management needs to be responsive to the
recommendations of a committee.
• Inconclusive discussion: Problems are discussed but no conclusions are reached or
decisions made.
• Lack of follow-through: Members are not given assignments.
• Domination: Often one person or clique dominates a meeting, talking and pushing for
their positions while others wonder why they are there.
27
• Bullying by the Chairperson: Sometimes the chairperson “names and shames” persons
in meetings as a form of control.
• Lack of preparation: The agenda is not prepared and materials that really need to be
there are not available. Someone has not done his or her homework.

• Hidden agendas: Some participants may have personal axes to grind, promoting
discussions that only they think are important.

Is a meeting needed?
How can a headteacher avoid holding meetings that frustrate people? Some attention
must be given to designing meetings that are productive. The first decision to be made is
whether a meeting is really necessary.

Activity 7.1
List all the reasons you can think of for a headteacher calling a meeting.

Comment
It seems almost too obvious to mention that there needs to be a legitimate reason for
holding a meeting. The design of the meeting depends on its purpose and its intended
outcomes. Some legitimate reasons for having meetings are listed below.

Legitimate purposes might include:

• to share information
• to plan future programmes, actions
• to co-ordinate actions of individuals or units
• to solve problems
• to make a decision on a plan of action
• to gather information, get feedback, review past actions
• to determine policy
• to motivate, inspire
• to train, instruct
• to provide support, build cohesion.

Consider, from your own experience, examples of meetings that you have attended and
have found to be less than productive and suggest reasons why.

Comments
Headteachers often conduct meetings because it is required of them. Some will say “We
have meetings for meetings’ sake”. These can often be a waste of time, and serve no
purpose to the improved management of a school. Among the reasons you gave may
have been that the purpose of the meeting was not legitimate. The following list provides
some questionable purposes for meetings:
• it is required or expected
• it is scheduled
• to deal with individuals in a group setting
• to punish or reprimand
• to exert control
• to gain visibility - ego satisfaction.

Assuming there are legitimate reasons for holding a meeting, the next question to ask is:
Is a meeting the best vehicle for accomplishing the objective? For example, if there is
information that needs to be communicated, should one hold a communication meeting
or would it be more efficient and effective to send out the information to all who need it
via a memo or written document? The basic condition that determines if a meeting is
needed centres on the question.
Do people have to interact face to face to achieve the objectives desired?
If the answer is yes, then a meeting is probably needed.

What type of meeting?

Meetings can take many different forms, from the more creative brainstorming

28
techniques to formal school board meetings. Below you will find a brief summary of the
different types of meetings you might employ as a headteacher.

Statutory: The law demands it, for example, headteachers’ meetings with the
Department of Education.
Managerial: Necessary to progress school affairs, for example, to inform of policy, to
brief, to delegate tasks, to discuss problems, to reach group decisions, etc.
Creative: To generate ideas, to open up new possibilities or avenues of action, for
example, to 'brainstorm' around the idea of what the school could design, manufacture;
to produce an advertising slogan, poster, etc.
Planning; groups of teachers working together to plan schemes of work or programmes
of study
Negotiating: To reach a solution to a problem, for example, management and the Guyana
Teachers’ Union to agree pay increases acceptable to two sides with different interests.
General/public: To report back to a group, for example, an Annual General Meeting of
staff members or to air matters of membership meetings, public inquiries into public
interest matters.

Activity 7.2

1. As a headteacher, what type of meeting would you arrange for the following:
• To discuss new assessment procedures with the staff
• to plan a school fund raising activity;
• to discuss the behaviour of a teacher with your student council;
• to meet with the District Education Officer or school board?

2. Discuss the reasons why you have made a particular choice.

Participants' roles
In any meeting there are a number of defined roles. These are fairly common to most
types of formal meetings. However, less formal meetings will not have all of these roles.

The chairperson
The role of the chairperson is to:
• co-ordinate the work of the committee
• ensure that rules and procedures are adhered to
• run meetings so that all members have a chance to air their views
• act as ‘umpire’ over disagreements, steering the meeting along avenue of decision-
making
• ensure that documents and records are efficiently kept
• foster good will and working relationships among staff members
• act as the meeting's leader and guide.

The secretary or clerk

The secretary's duties are to:
• carry out the administrative work of the meeting
• organise meetings and record the minutes
• liaise with the chairperson regarding the general running of the meeting
• keep meeting members and associated parties informed
• act as the chairperson's 'right hand'.

The treasurer
The role of the treasurer is to:
• monitor the meeting's financial activities
• record all its money transactions, submitting regular reports to the meeting as well as
annual balance sheets
• liaise with an external auditor who scrutinises the books
• advise the committee in matters of financial expenditure.

The committee member

Among the duties of the committee member are to:
29
• participate at meetings and do the work delegated to him or her in the process of
advising or decision-making
• attend meetings regularly, offering information, views and responses either by means
of voting or making views known to the chairperson
• keep staff or interested parties he or she represents informed of the work the
committee is doing and the decisions it has reached.

Organising and preparing meetings

The organisation of meetings involves a headteacher in a great deal of work. In order to
ensure that no job is missed, it is a good plan to deal with matters systematically. A
checklist is an invaluable aid. It can be conveniently arranged into jobs to do well in
advance, the day before the meeting, the day of the meeting, during the meeting and
after the meeting.

Activity 7.3
To prepare yourself for your next meeting, list the type of activities you have to do:
• well in advance of a meeting;
• on the day of a meeting;
• during a meeting;
• after the meeting.

Comments
This list that you have developed might not necessarily be exhaustive. Use it as a
starting point, and add to the list as you find new things that have to be arranged prior,
during and after a meeting.
You will almost certainly have included preparing an agenda, inviting participants,
outlining the purpose of the meeting, sending out any relevant paperwork / documents
to the participants, reminding attendees of the meeting time, date and place, taking
notes or minutes, checking on attendance and circulating notes / minutes after the
meeting.

Special terms for meetings

Often one attends meetings and becomes totally confused by the terms used during the
meeting. At times these terms are used deliberately to confuse the participants. Listed
below you will find a list of common, and in some cases not so common, terms used
during meetings. The list can be built on. Start your collection now!

Summary
In this unit we have introduced you to a number of problems and benefits associated
with meetings. Headteachers spend a considerable amount of time attending or
managing meetings, and therefore it is important that you use your time efficiently and
effectively during these meetings. As a management tool, meetings can become an
effective method of planning activities, informing staff members of activities, enhancing
team spirit, co-ordinating activities, solving problems and building cohesion in the staff
room. However, as we have noted, they can also be counter-productive if not used
wisely. They can be irritating for participants and often do not have the desired effect.
Careful preparation is therefore required so that the meeting will be as useful as possible
for all participants.

 Unit 8 - Managing Conflict

Introduction
I was angry with my friend:
I told my wrath, my wrath did end.
I was angry with my foe:
I told it not, my wrath did grow.
“The Poison Tree” – William Blake

30
Conflict and dispute are a part of life. There is no society, community, organisation or
interpersonal relationship which does not experience conflict at some time or another as
part of daily interaction. Conflict arises when people or groups are engaged in
competition to meet goals which are perceived to be, or are in fact, incompatible.
Conflict can become physically and emotionally damaging or it can lead to growth and
productivity for all parties. It all depends on how conflict is managed and resolved.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
After working through this unit, you should be able to:
• understand the nature of conflict
• recognise stages of conflict
• apply techniques of conflict resolution
• establish measures to avoid conflict.

This is such an important area that there are now many commercial courses in “Conflict
Resolution” which, if you find this area difficult, you might like to attend.

The nature of conflict

This programme does not attempt to give participants final solutions on conflict
resolution, but rather it deals with what headteachers might say and do with colleagues,
parents and learners when they cannot agree on certain matters.

How can one describe conflict? One definition is found below:

“Conflict is an open disagreement between two people or groups of people who have
different goals and values. Conflict involves people's feelings as well as their objectives,
and both feelings as well as outcome of the conflict must be resolved, agreement must
be found or a compromise worked out.”

Although this definition is rather negative, a number of comments have been made by
writers on the nature of conflict which recognise the definite advantages that can be
gained from conflict, including:
• confronting the individual with him or herself
• forcing reassessment of the position of the other party
• redefining of roles and relationships
• facilitating change
• preventing stagnation
• creating an awareness of alternatives and options.

Conflict as a process
The particular nature of conflict situations is not unknown to headteachers. At the outset
a conflict situation is often perceived as a single event; but this is seldom the case.
Conflicts do not simply erupt; rather they develop through various stages, and in each of
these stages certain factors contribute to the possibility of conflict.

Activity 8.1

1. Identify a particular conflict situation you are familiar with.

2. List the possible stages in the development of this conflict from beginning to
end.

Try to match the stages you identified with those discussed below:

3. Perceived conflict: Potential conflicts are precipitated by how individuals

see each other. These perceptions determine whether conflict will occur.

31
 4. Felt conflict: As mentioned in the definition of conflict, people's feelings and
attitudes towards each other, and the particular cause of conflict, will further
affect their eventual behaviour.

5. Manifest conflict: Based on the two stages above, confrontation will occur,
being either conflictive or problem-solving.

6. Conflict resolution: At some point in the process conflict will either be

resolved, or it will be suppressed.

7. Resolution aftermath: Depending on the outcome of the resolution the

future situation might lead to further conflict or to co-operation.

Conflict resolution
Conflict management is one of the activities that a headteacher is exposed to on a daily
basis. The types of conflict a headteacher is exposed to are not restricted to the domain
of the school, and in many cases can involve the community and other stakeholders.

Reflect for a moment on the conflict situations you have had to deal with over the past
few months.

Comments
If one is to analyse the situations you have thought about, one assumption that holds
true for all the cases is that problems must be solved. It is therefore on this assumption
that headteachers have to develop their skills in the area of conflict resolution.

What is conflict resolution?

“Resolution of conflict occurs when parties involved understand each other's position
accurately. They are willing to discuss it, because they want to resolve the conflict,
regardless of their disagreements. Resolution occurs only when the parties try to reach
mutually satisfying solutions.”

In the past, headteachers have depended upon a well-established hierarchy in authority.

The person in the leadership role could make rapid decisions and act autocratically when
necessary. This was often used to “resolve” conflict situations, but were these solutions
lasting and effective in the long-term?

The definition of conflict resolution posed above assumes a method of problem-solving

that is more democratic in its approach and allows those affected to be involved. The
next section suggests some ways in which you might want to approach conflict
resolution in the future.

Techniques of conflict resolution

When attempting to reach agreement in a conflict situation it may be useful to take note
of the five causes of conflict usually described by writers. These are differences based on
a clash of:
• interests
• understanding
• values
• style
• opinion.

Writers identify three styles of reaction to conflict. These are:

• aggressive (“fight it”)
• assertive (“negotiate it”)
• passive (“avoid it”).

Five skills for negotiating conflict can also be identified. These are:
• define it
• understand it
• look for “win-win” (where all parties to the conflict feel that they have gained
something)
32
• act at the right time
• check out the results.

These approaches to conflict resolution are valuable and instructive. They embody
certain techniques which are very useful in reducing tension between persons or groups,
but they do put great emphasis on the headteacher and her or his skill in being able to
negotiate a satisfactory resolution to a conflict.

In dealing with potential conflicts you might want to consider the following:

Ten hints on conflict resolution

8. Nurture a positive atmosphere.

9. Clarify perceptions of yourself and your position.

10. Clarify perceptions of the other parties.

11. Clarify perceptions of the causes of the conflict.

12. Clarify the underlying factors of the cause.

13. Be in charge of your responses.

14. Encourage parties to express feelings.

15. Focus on shared needs and goals.

16. Generate options.

17. Develop and implement “do-able” parts.

Negotiation
One way of positive conflict management is negotiation. Negotiation has been defined
as:
“A transaction in which both parties have a veto on the final outcome.”

In other words, each party in a negotiation has to consent to the outcome if it is to be

implemented and each has an interest in the other agreeing to it. Thus by negotiating we
make a joint decision.

According to this definition, negotiation is something we do every day in our personal,

professional or business lives. For example, persons negotiate with their spouses on
whether they spend their money on new household furniture, with their learners on
which household chores they have to do. They negotiate a salary increase with their
bosses and may be part of formal high-level negotiations on local, regional, national or
international policy or business issues.

We are constantly encouraged to become participants in the development process.

Participation means shared decision-making which means reaching agreement.
Successful participation is dependent on the skill of negotiation.

Negotiation is not easy. Many persons only know two ways of negotiation, namely gentle
and soft or tough and hard. Whatever position is taken involves a trade-off between
getting what the parties want and keeping a good relationship between the negotiating
parties.

There are many methods of negotiating and you will have your own techniques for which
you will have had a measure of success. However, the following method is valuable
because it can be used everywhere by anybody to negotiate anything.

It will be helpful to have a quick look at the strategies persons usually follow when
employing this method.

• Each party takes up a position, defends it and makes a series of concessions until an
agreement is reached or when the negotiations break down because the parties could
not make any additional concessions on their positions. One problem with this kind of
33
bargaining is that the main concern becomes the positions of the parties and not the
issues which brought the group together in the first place. It is usually a very long
process, emotionally draining, but it can produce agreements which will be acceptable to
all in the most efficient and friendly way as possible. The method consists of four points
which deal with the basics of negotiation. They are people, interests, options and criteria.

18. PEOPLE – Separate the people from the problem. This first point is
important because negotiators are people with their own emotions, beliefs,
likes and dislikes which influence the way they perceive the problem and
search for a solution. It is thus imperative that negotiating parties identify
the problem and work together to solve the problem and do not spend the
time trying to attack and change the people involved in the negotiation
process.

19. INTERESTS – Focus on interests and not on the position. This second
critical point emphasises the importance of identifying and focusing on the
negotiating parties’ real interests and not on their positions. Ask the basic
question “why?” to find out your own and the other party’s real interests.
Moreover, the most powerful, but often most overlooked interests are the
universal basic human needs, that is, economic well-being, security, social
acceptance, a sense of belonging and control over one’s own life. But above
all, listen to what is being said.

20. OPTIONS – Generate a wide variety of possibilities before reaching a

decision. Set aside a special time for the parties to invent a wide variety of
possible solutions to the problem. It has been found that the major obstacles
to inventing options are:
• premature judgement
• the search for the single answer
• assuming that “solving their problem is their problem”.

To overcome these obstacles it will be necessary to:

• Separate the act of judging from the act of inventing options. One strategy to use is
that of brainstorming.
• Look for multiple options which encourages different modes of thinking on the same
subject.
• Try and find mutual gain by identifying shared interests.
• Make the solution of their problem also your problem by actively trying to understand
their position and coming up with shared solutions.

21. CRITERIA – Insist that the result be based on objective and standard
criteria by which results can be measured. This will ensure a fair solution.

These four points are important and relevant throughout the negotiation process.

This, however, is one proposed way of dealing with conflict. There are so many models.
You would do well to research them and find the one that works for you best in different
situations.

Strategies of conflict resolution

A popular way of describing conflict resolution strategies is in terms of winning and
losing. These strategies can be broadly described as follows:

22. Win–lose
The outcome of this strategy is that one party loses and one wins. In most
cases this strategy is unsatisfactory, and in all probability the conflict will
erupt at a later stage.

23. Lose–lose
Both parties lose in the deal: usually a third party is involved, and tries to
reach a compromise that is seldom acceptable to either of the parties.
34
 24. Win–win
Both parties are satisfied with the outcome, and the focus is on solving the
problem and not defeating each other.

Summary
In negotiating a solution to a conflict situation the aim of the resolution process should
always be to strengthen the future relationship of the parties involved.

The conflict situation can have mutual advantages and benefits if approached in the
right manner, and with the right attitude towards a possible resolution.

Striving for a win–win strategy so that both parties can be satisfied with the outcome is
the ideal route for a headteacher to follow. Conflicts should be solved democratically.
Make use of a mediator when necessary.

But remember, a school with a lot of conflict on important issues is not a happy and
healthy one. As headteacher, it is your role to ensure the smooth running of the school
and, as leader, you must motivate your team to such an extent that conflicts are
minimal.

35