Module 3 Unit2
Cells: The basic
units of life
The parts of a light microscope
Parts of a light
microscope
Calculating the total magnification of a specimen
Read the magnification of the
eyepiece lens (usually 4x or 10x) and
multiply it by the magnification of the
objective lens (4x, 10x, or 40x).
Cells structure and function
- A cell is the smallest unit of life, made mostly up of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
nucleic acids and water. Both plant and animal cells consist of a cell nucleus,
cytoplasm and a cell membrane.
- Not all cells contain a nucleus (bacteria). A cell without a nucleus is known as a
prokaryotic cell and one with a nucleus is known as a eukaryotic cell.
- Although cells are very small, the ratio of surface area : volume must be large.
The large surface area facilitates the movement of substances into and out of the
cell, but the volume must be small enough for easy diffusion of substances inside
the cell.
- All cells do not look the same: their size, shape and structure change in order to
preform specific functions. This is known as differentiation.
- Cells become specialized to preform a specific function. (Specialization)
Main components of plant and animal cells
- All cells are made up of protoplasm – living material in plants and animal cells.
- Plants also have a non-living part: the cell wall, which surrounds the living part.
- Protoplasm = cytoplasm + nucleoplasm in the nucleus
- The cytoplasm is enclosed by the cell membrane or plasma membrane, and cell organelles
occur in the cytoplasm.
- The only non-living part of the cell and only occur in the plant cells.
- Consists of the Parts:
1. Primary cell wall
2. Middle lamella
3. Secondary cell wall
Primary cell wall
- All plants have a primary cell wall.
- Thin and occurs on the outside of the cell memmbrane.
- Consists of cellulose fibres that can stretch as the cell grows.
- There are small openings in the cell wall known as pits
- The pits contain cytoplasmic threads (plasmodesmata) that extend
through the walls to adjacent cells – they facilitate transport between
cells
Cell wall
Functions of the cell wall
The cell wall is a support structure that:
- Protects the living contents of the
plant cell and
- Gives rigidity to the plant cell.
Structure of the cell membrane
According to the fluid Mosaic model:
- The cell membrane consist of a double layer of phospholipid molecules, with large
protein molecules embedded in the layer of phospholipids.
- Some proteins extend through the two phospholipid layers.
- Proteins also occur on the outside.
- Each phospholipid molecule consist of two parts, the head and a tail
1, The head (a phosphate group) faces outwards and attracts water (hydrophilic).
2. The tail (2 fatty acids) faces inwards and repels water (hydrophobic).
- The cell membrane is not static because the phospholipids and the proteins can move
around.
- The double layer of phospholipids is impermeable to water-soluble molecules such as
glucose, amino acids, salts and nucleic acids.
- These molecules move through the hydrophobic double layer by means of carrier
proteins that pick up the molecules on the one side and then release them on the other
side.
- Some proteins form small channels which will only allow specific ions through.
Function of the cell membrane
• The cell membrane is selectively/differentially permeable and controls the
movement of substances into and out of the cell.
Movement across membranes
Substances – water, gases, dissolved salts as well as amino acids and glucose
continuously move into and out of a cell.
The following processes are responsible for this movement:
1, Diffusion
2, Osmosis
3, Active transport
Diffusion
- The movement of the molecules takes place because each particle has kinetic energy.
- The difference between the high concentration of molecules in one area and the low
concentration of the same molecules in another area is known as the concentration
gradient.
- The movement of molecules down a concentration gradient from a high to a low is known as
passive transport. No energy is required for this type of transport.
Osmosis
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion where:
- The particles that move are water molecules; and where
- The movement takes place across a selectively permeable membrane
- Many of the water
molecules in compartment
B are bound to salt
molecules.
- The free water mol. Are
therefore in comp. A.
- Comp. A has a greater
ability to release water mol.
To comp. B because it has
the most free water
molecules.
- Therefore: Comp A has a
higher water potential than
B.
- Water will move from A to
B through the selectively
permeable membrane.
- This movement will
continue until equal across
the membrane.
(Equilibrium)
Active transport
• Sometimes it is necessary for molecules to
move from a low concentration to a high
concentration through membranes, in other
words against the concentration gradient.
• Energy is needed for this process and it is
known as active transport.
• Most membranes have carrier molecules
that play a role in active transport.
Nucleus
• The nucleus is a prominent, round shaped structure in the cytoplasm.
• In animals it’s in the centre of the cell. In olants is not always in the centre, displaced by
the presence of a large vacuole.
The nucleus consits of four parts, the nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm, nucleolus and the
chromatin network.
• The nuclear membrane is a double membrane that contains small pores and encloses the
nucleus. The pores control the passage of substances into and out of the nucleus.
• The nucleus is filled with a jelly-like fluid, the nucleoplasm.
• Tangled threads, known as the chromatin netawork, occur throughout the nucleoplasm.
When the cell divides, the chromatin network condenses to form chromosomes.
Functions:
- Controls all the activities of the cell.
- Chromosomes carry hereditary
characteristics from cell to cell and the
next generation
Mitochondria
• Dispersed throughout the cytoplasm of plant
and animal cells.
• Mitochondrion is a cylindrically shaped, hollow
rod.
• It is enclosed by a double membrane – the
outer membrane is smooth and the inner
membrane contains finger-like folds known as Function:
cristae. ‒ The process of cellular respiration takes
• The cristae increases the inner surface area of place in the mitochondria.
the mitochondrion where chemical reactions ‒ During cellular respiration, energy is
take place. released from carbohydrates (glucose, in
• The mitochondrion is filled with a semi-fluid the presence of oxygen)
substance, the matrix. ‒ The energy that is released forms part of
• The matrix contains ribosomes and enzymes. the compound ATP which is the energy
The ribosomes synthesize the enzymes that carrier in cells.
are necessary for chemical reactions to take
place inside the mitochondrion.
Ribosomes
• Small, spherical structures that occur in plant and animal cells.
• Consists of RNA and proteins.
• They occur in the ER, mitochondria, chloroplasts and in groups in the cytoplasm.
Function:
• Site of protein synthesis – the process during which 51 or more amino acids join to form a
protein.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Fine membranous network found in plant and animal cells.
• It forms a continuous system of canals throughout the cytoplasm.
• It is connected to the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane.
• There ate two types of ER:
1, Rough ER – has ribosomes on its surface
2, Smooth ER – has no ribosomes on its surface.
Endoplasmic reticulum
Functions:
- The ER transports substances from one part of the
cytoplasm to another.
- It increases the internal surface area of the cell.
Golgi body
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Plastids
- They only occur in plant cells.
- There are 3 types of plastids: chloroplasts, chromoplasts
and leucoplasts.
Chloroplasts
- Oval shaped plastids
- Occur in the photosynthesizing parts of the plants – leaves.
- Surrounded by a double membrane – an inner and outer
membrane.
- A fluid matrix, known as the stroma, fills the chloroplast.
- In the stroma are disc-shaped membranes known as
lamellae/thylakoids.
- The lamellae form small stacks known as grana.
- The green pigment chlorophyll is embedded in the lamellae.
- 2 grana are connected by a membrane – intergranum.
- The stroma also contains enzymes that control
photosynthesis, as well as starch grains, oil droplets and
ribosomes.
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- Plastids that occur in yellow, orange and red flowers,
leaves and fruit.
- They contain pigments known as carotenoids.
- Chloroplasts change into chromoplasts when a fruit ripens,
or when leave change colour.
Chromoplasts
Functions:
Give the yellow, orange and red color to leaves, flowers and
fruits.
Leucoplasts
- They are colorless plastids that mainly occur in cells that
store food in an insoluble form.
Functions:
Become specialized to store food in the form of starch, lipids or
proteins.
Vacuoles
• Fluid filled compartments in the cytoplasm.
• Is enclosed by a selectively permeable membrane, the tonoplast.
• Filled with a fluid, the cell sap.
• The cell sap consist of water and dissolved substances.
• In plant cells , vacuoles are large and prominent.
• In animal cells, vacuoles are small or absent.
Function:
- The cell sap in the vacuole causes a pressure, known as turgor pressure, that gives the plants
cell rigidity.
- The cell sap often contains pigments known as anthocyanins, which give the blue, violet and
purple color to flowers and fruit.
Other types of
vacuoles
Centrosome
- It is an area in the cytoplasm near the nucleus of an animal cell.
- They are 2 small cylinder-shaped structures known as centrioles.
- The two centrioles lie close to each other at an angle of 90⁰.
- Each centriole consist of a number of fibrils, each of which contains three tubular structures
known as microtubules.
Function:
In animal cells, the centrioles play a role in the
formation of the spindle during mitosis.
ANIMAL CELL
PLANT CELL