CHAPTER 3: OSI AND TCP/IP MODELs

Objectives
At the end of the chapter a learner will be able to :
 Enumerate the 7 OSI models layers and precise their role
 Enumerate the 4 TCP/IP models layers and precise their role as well
 Establish a correspondence between the OSI and TCP/IP models

INTRODUCTION
To address the problem of network incompatibility and the inability to communicate
with one another, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) researched
different network schemes, such as DECnet, Systems Network Architecture (SNA),
and TCP/IP, to find a set of rules. As a result of this research, the ISO created a net-
work model that would help vendors to create networks that would be compatible and
operate with other networks.

I- The OSI Model

The osi(open system interconnexion) model refers to a model that defines the network
functions that occur at each layer.
So there are 7 layers each describing how information or data packet travels through
applications programs through a network medium (such as wires) to another application
program that is located in another computer on a network, even if the sender and
receiver have different types of network media.

a) Layer 7: The Application Layer

The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user. It provides network
services to the user’s applications. It differs from the other layers in that it does not
provide services to any other OSI layer; instead, it provides services only to applica-
tions outside the OSI model. Examples of such applications are spreadsheet programs
and word-processing programs. The application layer establishes the availability of
intended communication partners and also synchronizes and establishes agreement on
procedures for error recovery and control of data integrity. Examples of the Layer 7
applications protocoles include Telnet and HTTP.

b) Layer 6: The Presentation Layer

The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application layer of one
system sends out can be read by the application layer of another system. If necessary,
the presentation layer translates among multiple data formats by using a common for-
mat. One of the more important tasks of this layer is encryption and decryption. The
common Layer 6 graphic standards are PICT, TIFF, and JPEG. Examples of Layer 6
standards that guide the presentation of sound and movies are MIDI and MPEG.
c) Layer 5: The Session Layer
As its name implies, the session layer establishes, manages, and terminates sessions
between two communicating hosts. The session layer provides its services to the pre-
sentation layer. It also synchronizes dialogue between the two hosts’ presentation lay-
ers and manages their data exchange. In addition to handling session regulation, the
session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer, class of service, and exception
reporting of session layer, presentation layer, and application layer problems. Exam-
ples of Layer 5 protocols are the Network File System (NFS), X-Window System, and
AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP) .

d) Layer 4: The Transport Layer

The transport layer segments data from the sending host’s system and reassembles it
into a data stream on the receiving host’s system. The boundary between the transport
layer and the session layer can be thought of as the boundary between application pro-
tocols and data-flow protocols. Whereas the application, presentation, and session
layers are concerned with application issues, the lowest four layers are concerned with
data-transport issues.
The transport layer attempts to provide a data-transport service that shields the upper
layers from transport-implementation details. Specifically, issues such as reliability of
transport between two hosts are the concern of the transport layer. In providing com-
munication service, the transport layer establishes, maintains, and properly terminates
virtual circuits. Transport error detection and recovery and information flow control
are used to provide reliable service. Examples of Layer 4 protocols are Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Sequenced Packet
Exchange (SPX).

e) Layer 3: The Network Layer

The network layer is a complex layer that provides connectivity and path selection
between two host systems that might be located on geographically separated networks.
Additionally, the network layer is concerned with logical addressing. Examples of
Layer 3 protocols are Internet Protocol (IP), Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX),
and AppleTalk.

f) Layer 2: The Data Link Layer

The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link. By doing so,
the data link layer is concerned with physical (as opposed to logical) addressing, net-
work topology, network access, error notification, ordered delivery of frames, and
flow control.

g) Layer 1: The Physical Layer

The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional speci-
fications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between end
systems. Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data
rates, maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar
attributes are defined by physical layer specifications.
II – TCP/IP MODEL
Although the OSI reference model is universally recognized, the historical and techni-
cal open standard of the Internet is Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP). The TCP/IP reference model and the TCP/IP protocol suite make data com-
munication possible between any two computers anywhere in the world at nearly the
speed of light.
The U.S. DoD provided funding for the invention of the TCP/IP model because
it wanted a network that could survive any conditions, even a nuclear war. To illus-
trate further, imagine a world at war, criss-crossed by different kinds of connections,
including wires, microwaves, optical fibers, and satellite links. Then imagine that
information/data (in the form of packets) must flow, regardless of the condition of any
particular node or network on the internetwork (which, in this case, might have been
destroyed by the war). The DoD wants its packets to get through every time, under
any conditions, from any one point to any other point. This very difficult design problem
brought about the creation of the TCP/IP model, which has since become the standard
on which the Internet has grown.
The TCP/IP model, as shown in the following Figure has four layers:
-the application layer
-the transport layer
-the internet layer
-the network access layer

NB:
Do not confuse the layer functions of the
two models. The layer numbers are different, so the functions Layer 2 performs in the OSI
model might not be the same as Layer 2 in the TCP/IP model. For example, in the
OSI model, Layer 3 is IP, just as Layer 2 in the TCP/IP model is IP. Another case is
the TCP/UDP functions at Layer 4 (the transport layer) in the OSI model and Layer 3 (the
transport layer) in the TCP/IP model.
 Notice that the models have similarities and differences:
■ Similarities
 Both have layers.
 Both have application layers, although they include very different services.
 Both have comparable transport and network layers.
 Packet-switched (not circuit-switched) technology is assumed.
 Networking professionals need to know both.
■ Differences
 TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layers into its application layer.
 TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into its network access layer.
 TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer [Link] to TCP/IP
 The TCP/IP transport layer using UDP does not always guarantee reliable delivery of
packets, as the transport layer in the OSI model does.

Conclusion
TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the TCP/
IP model gains credibility just because of its protocols. In contrast, networks typically
aren’t built on the OSI protocol; the OSI reference model is used as a guide for under-
standing the communication process.