MODULE 1

WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES

Comprehensive Study Notes

Topics: Overview & Classification | Welding Terms | OFW | OFC | Arc Welding | Resistance Welding |
Solid-State Welding | Testing
1. Overview of Welding Technology
Welding is a process of joining two similar or dissimilar materials with or without the application of heat
and pressure.

1.1 Advantages of Welding

1. It is a permanent joint.
2. Strength of the joint is equal to or more than the base metal.
3. Similar and dissimilar materials can be joined.
4. Welding can be done in any position (vertical/horizontal).

1.2 Disadvantages of Welding

5. Welding setup cost is high.
6. Skilled technician is required.
7. Cracks will be formed in the welded joint.
8. Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) can be formed around the weld joint.

2. Classification of Welding
2.1 By Filler Material
Type Description

Autogenous Welding WITHOUT filler material

Non-Autogenous Welding WITH filler material
Homogeneous Chemical composition of filler = same as base metal
Heterogeneous Filler material is DIFFERENT from base metal

2.2 By Process / State

Welding is broadly classified into three categories based on the state of the metal during joining:

A) Solid-State Welding
9. Friction Welding
10. Forge Welding
11. Explosive Welding
12. Ultrasonic Welding
13. Diffusion Welding
B) Liquid-State Welding (Fusion Welding)
• Chemical: Gas Welding, Thermit Welding
• Arc: PAW, Shielded Metal Arc (SMAW), Submerged Arc (SAW) → Shield Metal Arc → TIG,
MIG
• Resistance: Spot, Seam, Projection, Flash Butt

C) Solid-Liquid State Welding

• Soldering
• Brazing

3. Welding Terminology
Term Definition

Base Metal (BM) The metal to be joined is called Base Metal.

Filler Material Used to fill the space between two close-fitting
materials in welding.
Weld Bead The amount of metal added to the workpiece in a single
pass.
Weld Pool / Puddle The portion of the weld joint that is melted by the heat
of welding.
Reinforcement The amount of metal projected above the base metal
surface.
Penetration The depth to which filler metal is penetrated into the
base metal.
Root Gap The shortest distance between the two workpieces
before joining.
Toe The junction between the workpiece and the weld
face/base.
Root The point of deepest penetration in a fillet.
Deposition Rate Amount of metal entering the workpiece per unit time
(kg/hr).
Throat The shortest distance between the root and the weld
face.
4. Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)
Oxyfuel gas welding produces a flame by the combustion of oxygen and a fuel gas (usually acetylene)
to melt and join metals. The flame is applied to the workpiece to heat the material to its melting point
where filler material is used to form the weld.

4.1 Chemical Reactions

Primary Reaction:
C₂H₂ + O₂ → 2CO + H₂ + Heat

Secondary Reaction:
2CO + H₂ + ½O₂ → 2CO₂ + H₂O + Heat

• Burning acetylene in O₂ causes exothermic reaction → heat melts the base metal.
• Complete combustion of 1 mole of acetylene requires 2.5 moles of O₂ (1 mole from cylinder, 1.5
from atmosphere).
• By controlling the O₂ / C₂H₂ flow ratio, different flames can be produced for different
applications.

4.2 Types of Flames

Flame Type O₂/C₂H₂ Ratio & Applications

Neutral Flame Ratio = 1:1 | Temp ~3200°C (inner cone) | Used for:
Mild steel, low carbon steel, aluminium alloy, cast iron
Oxidizing Flame Ratio = 1.15 to 1.5 | Temp ~3300°C | Used for: Copper,
zinc, brass, bronze
Carburizing Flame (Reducing) Ratio = 0.85 to 0.95 | Used for: High carbon steel,
nickel-based alloy (Monel 400)

4.3 OFW Equipment

14. Oxygen Cylinder - High pressure cylinder storing O₂ for combustion; made of steel with a valve.
15. Acetylene (C₂H₂) Cylinder - Stores C₂H₂ under pressure in porous material to stabilize the gas.
16. Regulators - Attached to cylinders to control and maintain correct gas pressure.
17. Welding Torch - Mixes O₂ and C₂H₂ gases to produce a controlled flame.
18. Torch Tip - End of torch where gases are mixed and ignited.
19. Hose Pipe - Flexible tubes carrying gases from cylinders to torch. O₂ = Black/Blue, C₂H₂ =
Maroon.
20. Welding Rod (Filler Material) - Used to enhance weld strength and durability.
21. Welding Helmet/Goggles - Protects welder's eyes from bright light, UV radiation, and heat.
4.4 Alternative Fuels
Fuel Gas Advantages / Disadvantages

Propane Adv: More readily available & cost effective vs C₂H₂ |

Dis-adv: Lower flame temp (~2000°C)
MAPP (Methyl-Acetylene- Adv: Burns hotter than propane, flame temp similar to
Propadiene-Propane) acetylene | Dis-adv: More expensive, not as available
as acetylene
Hydrogen Adv: Very hot flame (~3000°C), clean fuel with no
carbon emission | Dis-adv: More expensive, special
storage needed
Butane Adv: Cheaper, readily available in small cylinders | Dis-
adv: Lower flame temperature vs acetylene
Natural Gas (Methane) Adv: Economical, widely available | Dis-adv: Lower
flame temperature, less suitable for high-temp
applications

5. Oxyfuel Gas Cutting (OFC)

OFC is a process used to cut ferrous metals (mainly steel) using a combination of O₂ and fuel gas
(typically acetylene). A high-temperature flame heats the metal to its ignition point, then pure O₂ is
directed onto the heated metal to oxidize and blow away the molten material.

5.1 Steps in OFC

Step 1: Pre-Heating
• Cutting begins by heating the metal to a red-hot state using the oxy-acetylene flame.
• Temperature needed: ~1300°C to 1700°C (varies by metal).

Step 2: Oxygen Cutting

• Once metal reaches ignition temperature, a stream of pure O₂ is directed to the heated area.
• O₂ reacts with metal (iron) causing oxidation (exothermic) → creates molten slag.
• Slag is blown away by the O₂ stream, leaving a clean cut.

Step 3: Cutting Speed Control

• Speed is controlled by adjusting gas pressure and torch movement.
• Torch angle and distance from material also influence cut quality.
5.2 Advantages, Limitations & Applications of OFC
Advantages Limitations Applications

Versatile - various Not suitable for non-ferrous Metal fabrication (plates,

thicknesses, ferrous metals metals structural components)
Portable - lightweight Less precision than laser or Construction (large steel
equipment plasma cutting structures)
Cost effective vs Slag along cut edges (needs Ship building & automobile
laser/plasma cleaning) (modifying metal parts)
Simple - easy to learn,
minimal equipment

6. Arc Welding
6.1 Principle of Arc Welding
22. An arc is generated between two conductors of electricity (cathode and anode) in DC when they
touch to establish current flow, then separate by a small distance.
23. The arc is sustained by electric discharge through the ionized gas column (plasma) between the
two electrodes.
24. When electrode is in contact with workpiece → short circuit → electric arc generated.
25. To continue the arc, some gap (arc length) is maintained between electrode and workpiece.
26. In DC: electrons move cathode → anode. 2/3 heat on anode; 1/3 heat on cathode.
27. In AC: polarity continuously changes → uniform heat on both cathode and anode.

6.2 DC Arc Welding - Polarity Types

Polarity Characteristics

DCSP / DCEN (Direct Current Electrode is NEGATIVE, workpiece is POSITIVE | More

Straight Polarity / Electrode heat on w/p (2/3 heat at w/p, 1/3 at electrode) | Used
Negative) for: high thickness, high melting point material | Greater
depth of penetration | Lower deposition rate
DCRP / DCEP (Direct Current Electrode is POSITIVE, workpiece is NEGATIVE | More
Reverse Polarity / Electrode heat on electrode (2/3 heat at electrode, 1/3 at w/p) |
Positive) Used for: less thickness, low melting point material |
Less depth of penetration | Higher deposition rate

★ NOTE: Arc Blow: When welding near edges, magnetic lines concentrate in material and deflect
arc toward workpiece. Causes spatter.
6.3 Non-Consumable Arc Welding Processes
TIG / GTAW (Tungsten Inert Gas / Gas Tungsten Arc Welding)
• Non-consumable tungsten electrode generates the arc.
• Alloying elements like Thorium (Th) and Beryllium (Be) added to increase thermal resistance.
• < 5mm thickness: welded without filler material.
• > 5mm thickness: filler material can be used.
• Power supply: AC or DC depending on material.

TIG Power Supply Selection:

Material Power Supply

All materials EXCEPT Al & Mg DCSP (more heat on w/p side, good depth of
alloy penetration)
Al & Mg alloy AC power source (avoids oxide formation issues)
Note on DCRP in TIG Causes more distortion and large HAZ

• Applications: Al & Mg alloy welding in aerospace, automobile, chemical industries. Can weld in
any position due to less weld bead thickness.
• Disadvantage: For high-thickness material with filler, filler movement w.r.t. electrode is different.

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

• Plasma is a field of ionized gas. Arc is created between tungsten electrode and w/p by taking
energy from the spark.
• Uses DC power supply, tungsten electrode, water-cooling duct, shielding gas (inert/mixture),
and orifice to constrict plasma.
• Applications: Stainless steel, titanium, very high melting point metals and super alloys.
• Limitation: The intense arc produces extensive UV and infrared radiation, harmful to skin.

6.4 Consumable Electrode Arc Welding Processes

1. SMAW - Shielded Metal Arc Welding
• Arc initiated by touching coated electrode to w/p, then maintaining gap.
• Electrons and holes form in gas between electrode and w/p.

Functions of Flux Coating:

28. Flux gives alloys to bead material → bead becomes stronger than parent metal.
29. Provides heat treatment to bead.
30. Protects bead from atmospheric gas attack.
31. Arc stabilization is good.

Flux Coating Materials:

 Component Materials

Deoxidizing elements Al, Mn, Si, Graphite

Slag formation compounds FeO₂, SiO₂, TiO₂
Arc stabilizers Na₂O, CaO, TiO₂, MnO
Weld strength enhancers Mo, W, Ni, Co, V (Vanadium), Tungsten

Limitations of Flux Coating:

32. Slag inclusion
33. Hydrogen embrittlement

2. MIG / GMAW (Metal Inert Gas / Gas Metal Arc Welding)

• Consumable electrode in the form of a spool wire is supplied continuously.
• DCRP used for welding of all materials with high metal deposition rate.
• By increasing current supplied (100A–300A) → increases depth of penetration.
• Constant voltage power source used since electrode movement and filling is automatic.
• DCRP in MIG results in smooth metal transfer and stable arc with high deposition rate.
• DCSP will cause unstable arc that results in large spatter.
• Applications: Stainless steel, Al, Mg, Cu, Ni alloys; aircraft & automobile industries.
• Limitation: High initial cost.

3. FCAW - Flux-Cored Arc Welding

• Arc welding process using a continuously fed tubular wire electrode filled with flux.
• Electric arc struck between wire electrode and w/p generating heat to melt both.
• Flux inside wire produces shielding gas and slag, protecting molten weld pool from
contamination.
• External shielding gas may or may not be required depending on wire type.
• Uses constant voltage power source.

FCAW Polarity:
• DCEP: Most commonly used → deep penetration, stable arc, smooth weld bead.
• DCEN: Used with some self-shielded flux-cored wires; depends on electrode manufacturer.

4. SAW - Submerged Arc Welding

• Semiautomatic version of SMAW.
• Used for long weld runs.
• Arc is submerged inside the molten weld pool.
• Best suited for high deposition rates, high welding speed, and high depth of penetration.
• Flux material contains CaO and CaF₂.

SAW Applications: Welding of large diameter pipes, boilers, pressure vessels, fabrication, ship building.
SAW Limitations: (i) Only flat position welding is possible. (ii) HAZ is high.
7. Welding Power Source & Characteristics
7.1 Key Definitions
Term Definition

Short Circuit Current (Iₛ) Max rated current allowed through welding machine
during short circuit. Here, Voltage V = 0.
Open Circuit Voltage (V₀) Max rated voltage measurable across two open
terminals under no-load condition. Here, I = 0.
Duty Cycle (D.C) Percentage of time during which arc is ON without
overheating elements in a welding machine. D.C = arc
ON time / (arc ON time + idle time)

Power Source Equation (Linear characteristic):

Vt = V₀ - (V₀/Iₛ) × It
Where: It = terminal current, Vt = terminal voltage, Iₛ = short circuit current, V₀ = open circuit voltage

Also: Va = A + B×Ia (given equation form)

At Max Power (linear characteristics): Vt = V₀/2 and It = I ₛ/2, so P = Vt × It

7.2 Types of Welding Machines

Type Characteristics

Constant Current Type For small change in arc voltage → corresponding

change in current is small. Used in MANUAL arc
welding techniques.
Constant Voltage Type For small change in arc welding voltage →
corresponding change in current is high. Used in
AUTOMATIC welding techniques.

7.3 Melting Efficiency (Thermal Efficiency - ηm)

Hm = mcΔT + mL (heat required to melt, J/mm³)
Hs = (VI/Av) × ηh (heat supplied, J/mm³)
ηm = Hm / Hs

Where: V = voltage, I = current, A = area (b×t), v = linear velocity of welding, P = V×I = Power, ηh =
arc efficiency
8. Resistance Welding
Heat generated: Hq = I²Rt (Hq in Joules; I = current in amperes; R = resistance in ohms; t = time of
current flow in sec)
Heat to melt: Hm = mcΔT + mL
Efficiency: ηm = (Hm/Hq) × 100%

8.1 Spot Welding

• Copper electrodes are used.
• Indentation is produced by applying pressure.
• Step-down transformer is used with high current (~10,000 A).
• Time ~0.01 sec.
• Maximum resistance at interface between two sheets (due to presence of air gap).
• Heat liquefies metal and nugget is formed.

Spot Welding Timing Sequence (S = Squeeze, W = Weld, H = Hold, O = Off)

Nugget Dimensions:
• Diameter of nugget: dn = 6√t (where t = sheet thickness)
• Height of nugget: hn = 2(t - Indentation) per sheet
• For different thickness sheets: t = (t1 + t2) / 2

Applications: Lap welding of thin sheets; automobile bodies, refrigeration bodies, high-quality engine
parts.

8.2 Seam Welding

• Continuous spot welding = Seam welding.
• Pressure applied by rollers.
• Leak-proof joints obtained.
• Used for welding thin materials.

8.3 Projection Welding

• Welding of two sheets without indentation using this technique.
• Projections provided using embossing operation on one sheet.
• Nuggets formed at the cross-section of projection.
• Projections provided on thicker sheet or sheet with high thermal conductivity.
• Good bond between the two pieces; less distortion around the weld joint.
8.4 Flash Butt Welding
• Two w/p are clamped in electrode holders; high pulsed current (~0.1×10⁵ A) supplied.
• Two electrode holders used: one fixed, one movable.
• Initially current supplied and movable clamp forced against fixed clamp due to contact.
• Flash produced; current stopped and axial pressure increased to make joint.
• Weld formed through plastic deformation.
• Used for mild steel, alloy steel, titanium.
• Used for end-to-end or edge-to-edge joining.

8.5 Heat Balance in Resistance Welding

• For two sheets of different thickness: use small electrode tip diameter on the side of thicker
workpiece.
• For metals of different composition: use smaller electrode tip area on the side of high electrical
conductivity material.

9. Solid/Liquid State Welding: Brazing vs. Soldering

Property Brazing vs. Soldering

Filler Melting Point Brazing: >430°C but < BM melting pt | Soldering:

<430°C and also < BM melting pt
Filler Material Brazing: Alloy of Cu & Zn, Cu & Ag, Cu & Al (called
Spelter) | Soldering: Alloy of lead & tin (called Solder)
Flux Used Brazing: Borax & Boric acid | Soldering: Zinc Chloride
(ZnCl₂) and HCl
Joint Strength Brazing: Higher | Soldering: Lower (compared to
brazing)
Applications Brazing: Pipe fittings, leak-proof joints, light-weight
components | Soldering: Electronic industries
Similarity In both cases, filler material enters the gap between
workpieces by capillary action

When is Soldering preferred over Welding?

34. To quickly make liquid/gas tight joints (e.g. gas or water pipes).
35. For precision metals.
36. Where large joint area mitigates lower material strength.
37. For complex assemblies where welding is difficult.
38. Where excess heat or distortion is a concern.

When is Welding preferred over Soldering/Brazing?

39. Where permanent joint is required.
 40. Where brazing/soldering have inadequate heat resistance.
41. Where joint surfaces have some contamination.
42. Where we need to fill the gaps (e.g. repairing casting defects).

10. High Energy Beam Welding

10.1 Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
• Uses a concentrated light beam that impinges on the desired spot to melt and weld the material.
• Most useful laser: CO₂, N₂, He mixture in ratio 1:1:10 at pressure of 20 to 50 mmHg.
• Applications: Welding Al & Cu alloys in electronic industries; heat generated is less than EBW.
• Limitation: Highly reflective material cannot be welded.

10.2 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

• High velocity electron beam focused on w/p at a single point.
• Kinetic energy of electron beam converted into heat energy.
• High velocity → high depth of welds can be performed.
• Precise control of weld profile with minimum weld bead width and high depth of penetration.
• Dissimilar metals and reactive metals can be welded.
• Applications: Welding of Ti, Ni, stainless steel for gas turbine parts, space, aircraft, defence.
• Limitations: (i) High initial investment. (ii) Maintenance is costly (vacuum needed).

10.3 LBW vs. EBW Comparison

LBW EBW

Uses high intensity laser beam as Uses focused beam of high velocity electrons as heat
heat source source
Can be performed in vacuum or Vacuum is required
air
Suitable for thin to medium Suitable for thick materials
thickness
Lower setup cost compared to Higher setup and maintenance cost
EBW
Used in automotive, electronics, Used in aerospace, nuclear, high-precision industries
medical devices
11. Solid-State Welding
11.1 Friction Welding
• For joining end-to-end objects in solid state.
• One w/p fixed, other has linear and rotational movement.
• Rotating object moved linearly toward fixed object; rubbing generates heat.
• After sufficient heat, rotation stopped and axial pressure increased to produce joint.
• Joint strength is high.
• HAZ is less.
• Limited to axis-symmetric objects only.
• Applications: Drill bit, axle & hub, hollow pipes & valves.

11.2 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

• For joining flat surfaces end-to-end.
• w/p fixed on table; rotating pin plunged into w/p.
• Friction generates heat → w/p softens.
• Due to rotational movement of pin, soft metal is forced from BM to produce solid joint.
• Joint strength depends on: pin diameter, rotational speed, external pressure on pin.
• Applications: Al & Mg alloy flat surfaces in aerospace and defence.

11.3 Explosive Welding

• Low intensity explosives used.
• For joining high-thickness surface-to-surface.
• Two w/p: one fixed (target plate), one movable (flyer plate).
• Detonating explosive above flyer plate generates energy → flyer plate forced onto target plate.
• At contact of two w/p, plastic deformation → joint produced.
• Strength depends on impact force applied by flyer on target.
• No HAZ.
• Cold state welding.
• Applications: Cladding objects for corrosion resistance; joining dissimilar metals (Ti to steel, Ti
to Al).

11.4 Ultrasonic Welding

• For joining thin, less-thickness objects like foils.
• High frequency power supply → transducer → ultrasonic vibration → transferred to w/p through
clamp.
• At contact of two w/p, rubbing → reaching ~50% of melting temp, by releasing static load →
joint produced.
• Strength of joint is high.
• No HAZ.
• It is an expensive process.
• Applications: Fabrication of diodes & transistors in electronic industries; joining plastic material
on a metallic key.
12. Weldability
Weldability is a material's capacity to be welded successfully, ensuring strong and defect-free joints. It
depends on factors like composition, microstructure, and susceptibility.

Factors Affecting Weldability

43. Melting Point of Metal - Metals with high melting point are difficult to weld.
44. Thermal Conductivity - Metals with high thermal conductivity are difficult to weld.
45. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion - Metals with high thermal expansion are difficult to weld.
46. Percentage of Carbon - Metal with high % of carbon is difficult to weld.
47. Oxidized Formation Tendency - If it is high, the material will be difficult to weld.

13. Inspection and Testing of Welds

Inspection: Verifying whether the welded joint meets requirements.
Testing: More specific and quantitative in nature.

Destructive Testing (DT) Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

Joint is loaded to undergo Joint being tested is not damaged in any way; can still
permanent deformation and be used in application after testing.
becomes unsuitable for further
use.
Most common: Bend Test - Includes: Visual Inspection, Dye Penetrant Test,
welded joint undergoes bending Magnetic Particle Inspection, Radiographic Test,
in a direction to be tested; load Ultrasonic Test
applied is known and degree of
welding without failure is the
acceptance/rejection criteria.

13.1 NDT Methods

(i) Visual Inspection
• Weld inspected visually by authorized personnel to detect flaws, cracks on surface.
• Adv: Simplest and cheapest of all techniques.
• Dis-adv: Micro-size cracks cannot be detected; subsurface defects remain undetected; human
error.
(ii) Dye Penetrant Test
48. Liquid with high surface wetting characteristic applied on the weld.
49. Allowed to seep inside.
50. Excess liquid removed and developer applied.
51. Liquid that seeped inside rises up to surface, indicating a crack was present.
• Micro cracks invisible to naked eye can be seen.
• Cheap and fast.

(iii) Magnetic Particle Inspection

• Based on principle: magnetic lines change path whenever discontinuity encountered.
52. Fe particles placed on joint to be tested.
53. Magnetize the component under testing.
54. When discontinuity present → Fe particles cluster around that location.
55. Number and size of cluster gives indication of amount of defect.
• Adv: Fast.
• Dis-adv: Only for ferromagnetic materials.

(iv) Radiographic Test

• Based on ability of short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons) to
penetrate various materials.
56. Part to be tested placed between radiation source and film.
57. Pattern generated on film depending on thickness of inspection part.
58. Where there is a defect, amount of radiation absorbed is different → different pattern.
59. Pattern formed is an indication of type of defect.
• Highly accurate but very expensive and has major safety concerns.

(v) Ultrasonic Test (UT)

• Based on physical property that sound waves travel at known constant velocities through any
medium.
60. High frequency sound wave passed through material to be inspected.
61. By measuring the time for a sound wave to travel through a material, can determine how far it
has traveled.
62. Presence and position of defects detected by analyzing the sound wave reflected by the flaw.

Advantages of UT:
• High sensitivity
• Greater accuracy
• Non-destructive method
• Non-hazardous to operate
Disadvantages of UT:
• Manual operation, requires full attention
• Experience is required
— End of Module 1: Welding and Allied Processes —