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Introduction to structured programming using c language

5.1 C concepts

C is a general purpose programming language, unlike other languages such as C and FORTRAN
developed for some specific uses. C is designed to work with both software and hardware. C
has in fact been used to develop a variety of software such as:
 Operating systems: Unix and Windows.
 Application packages: WordPerfect and Dbase.
It was originally developed by Dennis M. Ritchie to develop the UNIX operating system at Bell
Labs. C was originally first implemented on the DEC PDP-11 computer in 1972. In 1978, Brian
Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie produced the first publicly available description of C, now known
as the K&R standard. The UNIX operating system, the C compiler, and essentially all UNIX
applications programs have been written in C. The C has now become a widely used professional
language for various reasons.

duces efficient programs.

-level activities.

Facts about C
 C was invented to write an operating system called UNIX.
 C is a successor of B language, which was introduced around 1970.
 The language was formalized in 1988 by the American National Standard Institute.
(ANSI).
 The UNIX OS was totally written in C by 1973.
 Today, C is the most widely used and popular System Programming Language.
 Most of the state-of-the-art softwares have been implemented using C.
 Today's most popular Linux OS and RBDMS MySQL have been written in C.

Why to use C?

C was initially used for system development work, in particular the programs that make up the
operating system. C was adopted as a system development language because it produces code
that runs nearly as fast as code written in assembly language. Some examples of the use of C
might be:

MERITS OF C LANGUAGE
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 C Supports structured programming design features.

It allows programmers to break down their programs into functions. Further it supports
the use of comments, making programs readable and easily maintainable.
 Efficiency
 C is a concise language that allows you to say what you mean in a few words.
 The final code tends to be more compact and runs quickly.
 Portability
C programs written for one system can be run with little or no modification on other
systems.
 Power and flexibility
 C has been used to write operating systems such as Unix, Windows.
 It has (and still is) been used to solve problems in areas such as physics and engineering.
 Programmer orientation
 C is oriented towards the programmer’s needs.
 It gives access to the hardware. It lets you manipulate individual bits of memory.
 It also has a rich selection of operators that allow you to expand programming capability.

5.2 C programming environment

Local Environment Setup

If you want to set up your environment for C programming language, you need the following
two software tools available on your computer, (a) Text Editor and (b) The C Compiler.
Text Editor
This will be used to type your program. Examples of few a editors include Windows Notepad,
OS Edit command, Brief, Epsilon, EMACS, and vim or vi.
The name and version of text editors can vary on different operating systems. For example,
Notepad will be used on Windows, and vim or vi can be used on windows as well as on Linux or
UNIX.
The files you create with your editor are called the source files and they contain the program
source codes. The source files for C programs are typically named with the extension ".c".
Before starting your programming, make sure you have one text editor in place and you have
enough experience to write a computer program, save it in a file, compile it and finally execute
it.
The C Compiler
The source code written in source file is the human readable source for your program. It needs to
be "compiled", into machine language so that your CPU can actually execute the program as per
the instructions given.
The compiler compiles the source codes into final executable programs. The most frequently
used and free available compiler is the GNU C/C++ compiler; otherwise you can have compilers
either from HP or Solaris if you have the respective operating systems.

Preprocessor directives
Preprocessor directives are lines included in a program that begin with the character #, which
make them different from a typical source code text. They are invoked by the compiler to
process some programs before compilation.
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 #define- the #define directive allows the definition of macros within your source code.
 #include- Inserts a particular header from another file.
 #undef- Undefines a preprocessor macro.
 #ifdef- Returns true if this macro is defined.
 #ifndef- Returns true if this macro is not defined.
 #if- Tests if a compile time condition is true.
 #else- The alternative for #if.
 #elif- #else and #if in one statement.
 #endif- Ends preprocessor conditional.
 #error-Prints error message on stderr.
 #pragma- Issues special commands to the compiler, using a standardized method.

5.3 C program format

A C program basically consists of the following parts −

 Preprocessor Commands
 Functions
 Variables
 Statements & Expressions
 Comments

 Preprocessor Commands: These commands tells the compiler to do preprocessing before

doing actual compilation. Like #include <stdio.h> is a preprocessor command which tells a
C compiler to include stdio.h file before going to actual compilation.
 Functions: are main building blocks of any C Program. Every C Program will have one or
more functions and there is one mandatory function which is called main() function. This
function is prefixed with keyword int which means this function returns an integer value
when it exits. This integer value is retured using return statement.
 The C Programming language provides a set of built-in functions. In the above
example printf() is a C built-in function which is used to print anything on the screen.
Check Builtin functionsection for more detail.
 You will learn how to write your own functions and use them in Using Function session.
 Variables: are used to hold numbers, strings and complex data for manipulation. You will
learn in detail about variables in C Variable Types.
 Statements & Expressions : Expressions combine variables and constants to create new
values. Statements are expressions, assignments, function calls, or control flow statements
which make up C programs.
 Comments: are used to give additional useful information inside a C Program. All the
comments will be put inside /*...*/ as given in the example above. A comment can span
through multiple lines.
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Note the followings

 C is a case sensitive programming language. It means in

C printf and Printf will have different meanings.
 C has a free-form line structure. End of each C statement must be
marked with a semicolon.
 Multiple statements can be one the same line.
 White Spaces (ie tab space and space bar ) are ignored.
 Statements can continue over multiple lines.

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
/* my first program in C */
printf("Hello, World! \n");
return 0;
}

Explanation:
 The first line of the program #include <stdio.h> is a preprocessor command, which tells a C
compiler to include stdio.h file before going to actual compilation.
 The next line int main() is the main function where the program execution begins.
 The next line /*...*/ will be ignored by the compiler and it has been put to add additional comments
in the program. So such lines are called comments in the program.
 The next line printf(...) is another function available in C which causes the message "Hello, World!"
to be displayed on the screen.
 The next line return 0; terminates the main() function and returns the value 0.

6.0 Fundamentals of c programming

6.1 C fundamentals

Operators and Operands

An operator is a component of any expression that joins individual constants, variables, array
elements and function references.

An operand is a data item that is acted upon by an operator. Some operators act upon two
operands (binary operators) while others act upon only one operand (unary operators).

An operand can be a constant value, a variable name or a symbolic constant.

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Note: An expression is a combination of operators and operands.

Examples
x + y ; x, y are operands, + is an addition operator.
3 * 5; 3, 5 are constant operands, * is a multiplication operator.
x % 2.5; x, 5 are operands, % is a modulus (remainder) operator.
sizeof (int); sizeof is an operator (unary), int is an operand.

Arithmetic Operators

There are five arithmetic operators in C.

Operator Purpose
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Remainder after integer division

Note:
There exists no exponential operators in C.
The operands acted upon by arithmetic operators must represent numeric values, that is operands
may be integers, floating point quantities or characters (since character constants represent
integer values).
The % (remainder operator) requires that both operands be integers.
Thus;
5%3
int x = 8;
int y = 6 ; x % y are valid while;
8.5 % 2.0 and
float p = 6.3, int w = 7 ; 5 %p , p % w are invalid.
Division of one integer quantity by another is known as an integer division. If the quotient
(result of division) has a decimal part, it is truncated.
Dividing a floating point number with another floating point number, or a floating point number
with an integer results to a floating point quotient .

Exercise
Suppose a = 10, b = 3, v1 = 12.5, v2 = 2.0, c1 =’P’, c2 = ‘T’. Compute the result of the following
expressions.
a+b v1 * v2
a-b v1 / v2
a*b c1
a/b c1 + c2 +5
a%b c1 + c2 +’9’

Note:
c1 and c2 are character constants
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ASCII codes for 9 is 57, P = 80,T = 84.

If one or both operands represent negative values, then the addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division operators will result in values whose signs are determined by their usual rules of
algebra. Thus if a b, and c are 11, -3 and –11 respectively, then

a+b =8
a – b = 14
a * b = -33
a / b = -3
a % b = -2
c % b = -2
c/b=3

Examples of floating point arithmetic operators

r1 = -0.66, r2 = 4.50 (operands with different signs)
r1 + r2 = 3.84
r1 - r2 = -5.16
r1 * r2 = -2.97
r1 / r2 = -0.1466667

Note:
If both operands are floating point types whose precision differ (e.g. a float and a double) the
lower precision operand will be converted to the precision of the other operand, and the result
will be expressed in this higher precision. (Thus if an expression has a float and a double
operand, the result will be a double).
If one operand is a floating-point type (e.g. float, double or long double) and the other is a
character or integer (including short or long integer), the character or integer will be converted to
the floating point type and the result will be expressed as such.
If neither operand is a floating-point type but one is long integer, the other will be converted to
long integer and the result is expressed as such. (Thus between an int and a long int, the long int
will be taken).
If neither operand is a floating type or long int, then both operands will be converted to int (if
necessary) and the result will be int (compare short int and long int)

From the above, evaluate the following expressions given:

i =7, f = 5.5, c = ’w’. State the type of the result.

i+f
i+c
i + c-‘w’
( i + c) - ( 2 * f / 5)

(‘w” has ASCII decimal value of 119)

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Note: Whichever type of result an expression evaluates to, a programmer can convert the result
to a different data type if desired. The general syntax of doing this is:

(data type) expression.

The data type must be enclosed in parenthesis (). For example the expression (i + f) above
evaluates to 12.5. To convert this to an integer, it will be necessary to write
(int) (i + f).

Operator Precedence

The order of executing the various operations makes a significant difference in the result. C
assigns each operator a precedence level. The rules are;

Multiplication and division have a higher precedence than addition and subtraction, so they are
performed first.

If operators of equal precedence; (*, /), (+, -) share an operand, they are executed in the order in
which they occur in the statement. For most operators, the order (associativity) is from left to
right with the exception of the assignment ( = ) operator.

Consider the statement;

butter = 25.0 + 60.0 * n / SCALE;
Where n = 6.0 and SCALE = 2.0.

The order of operations is as follows;

First: 60.0 * n = 360.0
(Since * and / are first before + but * and / share the operand n with * first)

Second: 360.0 / SCALE = 180

(Division follows)

Third: 25.0 + 180 = 205.0 (Result)

(+ comes last)

Note that it is possible for the programmer to set his or her own order of evaluation by putting,
say, parenthesis. Whatever is enclosed in parenthesis is evaluated first.

What is the result of the above expression written as:

+ 60.0 * n) / SCALE.

Example: Use of operators and their precedence

/* Program to demonstrate use of operators and their precedence */
include<stdio.h >
main()
{
int score,top;
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score = 30;
top = score - (2*5) + 6 * (4+3) + (2+3);
printf (“top = %d \ n” , top);
system(“pause”);
return 0;
}
Try changing the order of evaluation by shifting the parenthesis and note the change in the top
score.

Example: Converting seconds to minutes and seconds using the % operator

#include<stdio.h >
#define SEC_PER_MIN 60
main()
{
int sec, min, sec_left;
printf(“ Converting seconds to minute and seconds \n “) ;
printf( “Enter number of seconds you wish to convert \n “) ;
scanf(“% d” , &sec ) ; /* Read in number of seconds */
min = sec / SEC_PER_MIN ; / * Truncate number of seconds */
sec_left = sec % SEC_PER_MIN ;
printf(“% d seconds is % d minutes,% seconds\n “ ,sec,min,sec_left);
system(“pause”);
return 0;
}

The sizeof operator

sizeof returns the size in bytes, of its operand. The operand can be a data type e.g. sizeof (int), or
a specific data object e.g. sizeof n.

If it is a name type such as int, float etc. The operand should be enclosed in parenthesis.

Example : Demonstrating ‘sizeof’ operator

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int n;
printf(“n has % d bytes; all ints have % d bytes \n”, sizeof n, sizeof(int)) ;
system(“pause”);
return 0;
}
The Assignment Operator
The Assignment operator ( = ) is a value assigning operator. There are several other assignment
operators in C. All of them assign the value of an expression to an identifier.

Assignment expressions that make use of the assignment operator (=) take the form;
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identifier = expression;
where identifier generally represents a variable, constant or a larger expression.

Examples of assignment;
a=3;
x=y;
pi = 3.14;
sum = a + b ;
area_circle = pi * radius * radius;

Note
You cannot assign a variable to a constant such as 3 = a ;
The assignment operator = and equality operator (= =) are distinctively different. The = operator
assigns a value to an identifier. The equality operator (= =) tests whether two expressions have
the same value.
Multiple assignments are possible e.g. a =b = 5 ; assigns the integer value 5 to both a and b.
Assignment can be combined with +, -, /, *, and %

The Conditional Operator

Conditional tests can be carried out with the conditional operator (?). A conditional expression
takes the form:

expression1 ? expression2 : expression3 and implies;

evaluate expression1. If expression1 evaluates to true ( value is 1 or non zero) then evaluate
expression 2, otherwise (i.e. if expression 1 is false or zero ) , evaluate expression3.

Consider the statement (i < 0) ? 0 :100

Assuming i is an integer, the expression (i < 0) is evaluated and if it is true, then the result of the
entire conditional expression is zero (0), otherwise, the result will be 100.

Unary Operators

These are operators that act on a single operand to produce a value. The operators may precede
the operand or are after an operand.

Examples
Unary minus e.g. - 700 or –x
Incrementation operator e.g. c++
Decrementation operator e.g. f - -
sizeof operator e.g. sizeof( float)
 Increment operators are used to increase the value of the variable by one and decrement
operators are used to decrease the value of the variable by one in C programs.
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 Syntax:
Increment operator: ++var_name; (or) var_name++;
Decrement operator: – -var_name; (or) var_name – -;
 Example:
Increment operator : ++ i ; i ++ ;
Decrement operator : – – i ; i – – ;

Relational Operators

There are four relational operators in C.

< Less than

<= Less than or equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to

Closely associated with the above are two equality operators;

== Equal to
!= Not equal to

The above six operators form logical expressions.

A logical expression represents conditions that are either true (represented by integer 1) or false
(represented by 0).

Example
Consider a, b, c to be integers with values 1, 2,3 respectively. Note their results with relational
operators below.

Expression Result

a<b 1 (true)
(a+ b) > = c 1 (true)
(b + c) > (a+5) 0 (false)
C != 3 0(false)
b==2 1 (true)

Logical operators

&& Logical AND

|| Logical OR
! NOT

The two operators act upon operands that are themselves logical expressions to produce more
complex conditions that are either true or false.
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Example
Suppose i is an integer whose value is 7, f is a floating point variable whose value is 5.5 and C is
a character that represents the character ‘w’, then;

(i > = = 6 ) && ( C = = ‘w’ ) is 1 (true)

( C’ > = 6 ) || (C = 119 ) is 1 (true)
(f < 11 ) && (i > 100) is 0 (false)
(C! = ‘ p’) || ((i + f) < = 10 ) is 1 (true)

Revision Exercises

Describe with examples, four relational operators.

What is ‘operator precedence’? Give the relative precedence of arithmetic operators.
Suppose a, b, c are integer variables that have been assigned the values a =8, b = 3 and c = - 5, x,
y, z are floating point variables with values x =8.8, y = 3.5, z = -5.2.

Further suppose that c1, c2, c3 are character-type variables assigned the values E, 5 and ?
respectively.

Determine the value of each of the following expressions:

a/b (v) x % y
2 * b + 3 * (a – c) (vi) 2 * x / (3 * y)
(a * c) % b (vii) c1 / c3
(x / y) + z (viii) (c1 / c2) * c3

Data Types
In computer programming, a data type or simply type is a classification of data which tells the
compiler or interpreter how the programmer intends to use the data. Most programming
languages support various types of data, for example: real, integer or Boolean. A Data type
provides a set of values from which an expression (i.e. variable, function ...) may take its values.
The type defines the operations that can be done on the data, the meaning of the data, and the
way values of that type can be stored.

Simple Data types - primitive data type is either of the following:

a basic type is a data type provided by a programming language as a basic building block. Most
languages allow more complicated composite types to be recursively constructed starting from
basic types.
a built-in type is a data type for which the programming language provides built-in support.
They include
Type Meaning Keyword
Character Character data Char
Integer Signed whole number Int
Float floating-point numbers Float
Double double precision floating- Double
point numbers
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Void Valueless Void

The ‘int’ specifier

It is a type specifier used to declare integer variables. For example, to declare count as an integer
you would write:
int count;

Integer variables may hold signed whole numbers (numbers with no fractional part). Typically,
an integer variable may hold values in the range –32,768 to 32,767 and are 2 bytes long.

The ‘char’ specifier

A variable of type char is 1 byte long and is mostly used to hold a single character. For example
to declare ch to be a character type, you would write:
char ch;

The ‘float’ specifier

It is a type specifier used to declare floating-point variables. These are numbers that have a
whole number part and a fractional or decimal part for example 234.936. To declare f to be of
type float, you would write:
float f;
Floating point variables typically occupy 4 bytes.
The ‘double’ specifier
It is a type specifier used to declare double-precision floating point variables. These are variables
that store float point numbers with a precision twice the size of a normal float value. To declare
d to be of type double you would write:
double d;
Double-type variables typically occupy 8 bytes.

An identifier- is a string of alphanumeric characters that begins with an alphabetic character or

an underscore character that are used to represent various programming elements such as
variables, functions, arrays, structures, unions and so on. Actually, an identifier is a user-defined
word.

An expression - in a programming language is a combination of one or more explicit values,

constants, variables, operators, and functions that the programming language interprets
(according to its particular rules of precedence and of association) and computes to produce ("to
return", in a stateful environment) another value. This process, as for mathematical expressions,
is called evaluation.

I/O Instructions –
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C programming has several in-built library functions to perform input and output tasks.

Two commonly used functions for I/O (Input/Output) are printf() and scanf().

The scanf() function reads formatted input from standard input (keyboard) whereas
the printf() function sends formatted output to the standard output (screen).

Example 1: C Output
#include <stdio.h> // Including header file to run printf() function.
int main()
{
printf("C Programming"); // Displays the content inside quotation
return 0;
}

Output

C Programming

 All valid C program must contain the main() function. The code execution begins from
the start of main() function.
 The printf() is a library function to send formatted output to the screen.
The printf()function is declared in "stdio.h" header file.
 Here, stdio.h is a header file (standard input output header file) and #include is a
preprocessor directive to paste the code from the header file when necessary. When the
compiler encounters printf() function and doesn't find stdio.h header file, compiler
shows error.
 The return 0; statement is the "Exit status" of the program.

Example 2: C Integer Output

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
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int testInteger = 5;
printf("Number = %d", testInteger);
return 0;
}

Output

Number = 5

Inside the quotation of printf() function, there is a format string "%d" (for integer). If the
format string matches the argument (testInteger in this case), it is displayed on the
screen.

Example 3: C Integer Input/Output

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int testInteger;
printf("Enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d",&testInteger);
printf("Number = %d",testInteger);
return 0;
}

Output

Enter an integer: 4

Number = 4
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Keywords - These are reserved words that have special meaning in a language. The compiler
recognizes a keyword as part of the language’s built – in syntax and therefore it cannot be used
for any other purpose such as a variable or a function name. C keywords must be used in
lowercase otherwise they will not be recognized.

Examples of keywords
auto break case else int void
default do double if sizeof long
float for goto signed unsignedError! Bookmark not
defined.
register return short union continue
struct switch typedef const extern
volatile while char enum static

Handling Errors

Logic Errors
These occur from the incorrect use of control structures, incorrect calculation, or omission of a
procedure. Examples include: An indefinite loop in a program, generation of negative values
instead of positive values. The compiler will not detect such errors since it has no way of
knowing your intentions. The programmer must try to run the program so that he/she can
compare the program’s results with already known results.

Run Time Error

This is an error that occurs during the execution of a program. In contrast, compile-time errors
occur while a program is being compiled. Runtime errors indicate bugs in the program or
problems that the designers had anticipated but could do nothing about. For example, running out
of memory will often cause a runtime error.

Semantic Errors
They are caused by illegal expressions that the computer cannot make meaning of. Usually no
results will come out of them and the programmer will find it difficult to debug such errors.
Examples include a data overflow caused by an attempt to assign a value to a field or memory
space smaller than the value requires division by zero.

Syntax errors
These are errors in the code you write so that the compiler cannot understand your code and the
code will not compile. They include missing colon, semicolon and parenthesis.
Syntaxerrors occur when a program does not conform to the grammar of a programming
language, and the compiler cannot compile the source file. Logic errors occur when a program
does not do what the programmer expects it to do.
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Coding - Computer programming (often shortened to programming) is a process that leads from
an original formulation of a computing problem to executable computer programs. Programming
involves activities such as analysis, developing understanding, generating algorithms,
verification of requirements of algorithms including their correctness and resources
consumption, and implementation (commonly referred to as coding) of algorithms in a target
programming language. Source code is written in one or more programming languages. The
purpose of programming is to find a sequence of instructions that will automate performing a
specific task or solving a given problem. The process of programming thus often requires
expertise in many different subjects, including knowledge of the application domain, specialized
algorithms, and formal logic.

Compiling - A compiler is a computer program (or a set of programs) that transforms source
code written in a programming language (the source language) into another computer language
(the target language), with the latter often having a binary form known as object code. The most
common reason for converting source code is to create an executable program. The name
"compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level
programming language to a lower level language (e.g., assembly language or machine code). If
the compiled program can run on a computer whose CPU or operating system is different from
the one on which the compiler runs, the compiler is known as a cross-compiler. More generally,
compilers are a specific type of translator.

Debugging - Debugging is the routine process of locating and removing computer program bugs,
errors or abnormalities, which is methodically handled by software programmers via debugging
tools. Debugging checks, detects and corrects errors or bugs to allow proper program operation
according to set specifications. Developing software programs undergo heavy testing, updating,
troubleshooting and maintenance. Normally, software contains errors and bugs, which are
routinely removed. In the debugging process, complete software programs are regularly
compiled and executed to identify and rectify issues. Large software programs, which contain
millions of source code lines, are divided into small components.

Testing - testing is finding out how well something works. In terms of human beings, testing
tells what level of knowledge or skill has been acquired. In computer hardware and software
development, testing is used at key checkpoints in the overall process to determine whether
objectives are being met. For example, in software development, product objectives are
sometimes tested by product user representatives. When the design is complete, coding follows
and the finished code is then tested at the unit or module level by each programmer; at the
component level by the group of programmers involved; and at the system level when all
components are combined together. At early or late stages, a product or service may also be
tested for usability.
Language Translators- These are programs that translate programs written in a language other
than machine language into machine language programs for execution. Programs written in
assembly or high level languages are called source programs or source code before they undergo
translation. After the translation the machine language version of the same program is called
object program or object code. Language translators can be classified into

 Assemblers
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 Compilers
 Interpreters

Assembler- This is a program that translates a source program written in assembly language into
its equivalent machine code (object code).

Compiler- During compilation both the high level source program and the compiler are loaded
into the RAM. The compiler reads through the source program statement by statement,
converting each correct statement into multiple machine code instructions. The process
continues until the compiler has read through the entire source program or it encounters an error.
An erroneous statement is not translated but is placed on the source program error listing, which
will be displayed to the programmer at the end of the translation process. Where there are no
errors the compiler will generate a machine code object program which is stored for subsequent
execution.

Interpreter

It Is similar to the compiler in that it translates high level language programs into machine code
for execution but no object code is generated. An interpreter translates the program one
statement at a time and if it is error free it executes the statement. This continues till the last
statement in the program has translated and executed. Thus an interpreter translates and executes
a statement before it goes to the next statement. When it encounters an error it will immediately
stop the execution of the program.

Interpreter Compiler

Translates program one statement at a Scans the entire program and translates it
time. as a whole into machine code.

It takes less amount of time to analyze It takes large amount of time to analyze
the source code but the overall the source code but the overall execution
execution time is slower. time is comparatively faster.

Generates intermediate object code

No intermediate object code is
which further requires linking, hence
generated, hence are memory efficient.
requires more memory.

Continues translating the program until It generates the error message only after
the first error is met, in which case it scanning the whole program. Hence
stops. Hence debugging is easy. debugging is comparatively hard.

Programming language like Python, Programming language like C, C++ use

Ruby use interpreters. compilers.
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Examples of compiler
 gcc
 clang
 javac
 go (compiler)
Some compiler runs before the program first run, but there are some case that compiler run
after program started that called JIT (just in time).
Interpreter is program that executes source code or byte code, for example:
 ruby (interpreter)
 python (interpreter)
 php (interpreter)

Source Code files

When you write a program in C language, your instructions from the source code (or simply
source file), C filenames have an extension .c. The part of the name before the period is called
the base name and the part after the period is called the extension.

Object code, Executable code and Libraries

An executable file is a file containing ready to run machine code. C accomplishes this in two
steps.
Compiling – The compiler converts the source code to produce the intermediate object code.
An object file is a file containing object code, meaning relocatable format machine code that is
usually not directly executable. There are various formats for object files, and the
same object code can be packaged in different object files. An object file may also work like a
shared library.
The linker combines the intermediate code with other code to produce the executable file. C
does this in a modular manner.
Every C file must be saved with a .c file extension.
Linker: it is a system software which combines One or more object files and possible some
library code into either some executable some library or a list of error.
Loader: A program which loads the executable file to the primary memory of the machine.

Comments

Comments are non – executable program statements meant to enhance program readability and allow
easier program maintenance, i.e. they document the program.
Types
Multiline Comments
Multiline comments have one or more lines of narrative within a set of comment delimiters.
These comment delimiters are the begin comment /* and end comment */ markers. Anything
between these two markers is considered a comment. The compiler ignores comments when
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reading the source code. Lines 1 through 4 of Listing 1 show a multiline comment. For
convenience, Lines 1 through 4 of Listing 1 are repeated here.

1: /*
2: * FileName: [Link]
3: * Author: Joe Mayo
4: */

Some languages allow embedded multiline comments, but C# does not. Consider the following
example:

1: /*
2: Filename: [Link]
3: Author: Joe Mayo
4: /*
5: Initial Implementation: 04/01/01
6: Change 1: 05/15/01
7: Change 2: 06/10/01
8: */
9: */

The begin comment on Line 1 starts a multiline comment. The second begin comment on line 4
is ignored in C# as just a couple characters within the comment. The end comment on Line 8
matches with the begin comment on line 1. Finally, the end comment on Line 9 causes the
compiler to report a syntax error because it doesn't match a begin comment.

Single-Line Comments

Single-line comments allow narrative on only one line at a time. They begin with the double
forward slash marker, //. The single-line comment can begin in any column of a given line. It
ends at a new line or carriage return. Lines 6, 9, and 12 of Listing 1 show single-line comments.
These lines are repeated here for convenience.

6: // Program start class

7: public class HowdyPartner
8: {
9: // Main begins program execution
10: public static void Main()
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11: {
12: // Write to console
13: [Link]("Howdy, Partner!");

Declaration statements

In C, all variables must be declared before they are used. Variable declarations ensure that
appropriate memory space is reserved for the variables, depending on the data types of the
variables. Line 6 is a declaration for an integer variable called num.

Assignment and Expression statements

An assignment statement uses the assignment operator “=” to give a variable on the operator’s
left side the value to the operator’s right or the result of the expression on the right. The
statement num =1; (Line 6) is an assignment statement.

Escape sequences

Escape sequences (also called back slash codes) are character combinations that begin with a
backslash symbol (\) used to format output and represent difficult-to-type characters.

One of the most important escape sequences is \n, which is often referred to as the new line
character. When the C compiler encounters \n, it translates it into a carriage return.
For example, this program:

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
printf(“This is line one \n”);
printf(“This is line two \n”);
printf(“This is line three”);
system(pause);
return 0;
}
displays the following output on the screen.

This is line one

This is line two
This is line three
Below are other escape sequences:
Escape sequence Meaning
\a alert/bell
\b backspace
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\n new line
\v vertical tab
\t horizontal tab
\\ back slash
\’ Single quote (‘)
\” Double quote (“”)
\0 null

Special character in C
, Comma * Asterisk ' Apostrophe ( Left Parenthesis
& .Ampersand : Colon < Opening Angle(Less than | Vertical Bar
sign) .
. Period - .Minus Sign " Quotation Marks ) Right
Parenthesis
; Semicolon ? Question > Closing Angle(Greater than / Slash
Mark sign)
^ Caret + .Plus Sign ! Exclamation Mark [ Left Bracket
\ Backslash ~ Tilde % Percentage Sign $ Dollar Sign

] Right { Left Brace } Right Bracket # Number Sign

Bracket
- Underscore

Variables

A variable is a memory location whose value can change during program execution. In C, a
variable must be declared before it can be used. Variables can be declared at the start of any
block of code.

A declaration begins with the type, followed by the name of one or more variables. For example,
int high, low, results[20];

Types of Variables
There are two places where variables are declared: inside a function or outside all functions.

Variables declared outside all functions are called global variables and they may be accessed by
any function in your program. Global variables exist the entire time your program is executing.

Variables declared inside a function are called local variables. A local variable is known to and
may be accessed by only the function in which it is declared. You need to be aware of two
important points about local variables.

The local variables in one function have no relationship to the local variables in another function.
That is, if a variable called count is declared in one function, another variable called count may
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PROGRAM WRITING NOTES

also be declared in a second function – the two variables are completely separate from and
unrelated to one another.

Local variables are created when a function is called, and they are destroyed when the function is
exited. Therefore local variables do not maintain their values between function calls.

Constants

A constant is a value that does not change during program execution. In other words, constants
are fixed values that may not be altered by the program.

Integer constants are specified as numbers without fractional components. For example –10,
1000 are integer constants.

Floating - point constants require the use of the decimal point followed by the number’s
fractional component. For example, 11.123 is a floating point constant. C allows you to use
scientific notation for floating point numbers. Constants using scientific notation must follow
this general form:
number E sign exponent
The number is optional. Although the general form is shown with spaces between the component
parts for clarity, there may be no spaces between parts in an actual number . For example, the
following defines the value 1234.56 using scientific notation.
123.456E1

Character constants are usually just the character enclosed in single quotes; 'a', 'b', 'c'.
ch = ‘z’;

Note:
There is nothing in C that prevents you from assigning a character variable a value using a
numeric constant. For example the ASCII Code for ‘A ‘ is 65. Therefore, these two assignments
are equivalent.

char ch;
ch = “A’;
ch = 65;

Types of Constants
Constants can be used in C expressions in two ways:

Directly
Here the constant value is inserted in the expression, as it should typically be.
For example:
Area = 3.14 * Radius * Radius;
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PROGRAM WRITING NOTES

The value 3.14 is used directly to represent the value of PI which never requires changes in the
computation of the area of a circle

Using a Symbolic Constant

This involves the use of another C preprocessor, #define.

For example, #define SIZE 10

A symbolic constant is an identifier that is replaced with replacement text by the C preprocessor
before the program is compiled. For example, all occurrences of the symbolic constant SIZE are
replaced with the replacement text 10.

This process is generally referred to as macro substitution. The general form of the #define
statement is;

#define macro-name string

Notice that this line does not end in a semi colon. Each time the macro - name is encountered in
the program, the associated string is substituted for it. For example, consider the following
program.
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Declarations can be spread out, allowing space for an explanatory comment. Variables can also
be initialised when they are declared. This is done by adding an equals sign and the required
value after the declaration.

int high = 250; /* Maximum Temperature */

int low = -40; /* Minimum Temperature */
int results[20]; /* Series of temperature readings */

Scope of variables
Scope of variable refers to the visibility of a variable in a program. Meaning which parts of your
program can see or use it.
A scope is a region of the program and broadly speaking there are three places, where variables
can be declared −
Inside a function or a block which is called local variables,
In the definition of function parameters which is called formal parameters.
Outside of all functions which is called global variables.
Local Variables
Are variables declared inside a given procedure and can be accessed or used only in a procedure
in which they are declared. These types of variables are only meaningful inside the procedure.
No statements outside the procedure may reference local variables .A local variable is a variable
that is given local scope. Local variable references in the function or block in which it is declared
override the same variable name in the larger scope. In programming languages with only two
levels of visibility, local variables are contrasted with global variables.
2) Global Variables
Variables declared for the entire program. Global variables can be utilized anywhere within the
program block, whether inside of or external to the procedure. a global variable is a variable with
global scope, meaning that it is visible (hence accessible) throughout the program, unless
shadowed.

Variable Names
Every variable has a name and a value. The name identifies the variable and the value stores
data. There is a limitation on what these names can be. Every variable name in C must start with
a letter; the rest of the name can consist of letters, numbers and underscore characters.

C recognizes upper and lower case characters as being different (C is case- sensitive). Finally,
you cannot use any of C's keywords like main, while, switch etc as variable names.

Rules for constant and variables

1) Variable or constant name shouldn’t be a keyword it should be a user defined
2) Every variable or constant name should start with either underscore or alphabet
3) A variable or constant name can be made up of either underscore or alphabet as well
as numerals and combination of both.
4) No special character are allowed within either constant or variable name except
underscore
5) In case a variable or a constant name is made up of more than one word, the words
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PROGRAM WRITING NOTES

can either be fully joined or joined by use of underscore

Examples of legal variable names

x result outfile bestyet
x1 x2 out_file best_yet

Using printf() To Output Values

You can use printf( ) to display values of characters, integers and floating - point values. To do
so, however, requires that you know more about the printf( ) function.

For example:
printf(“This prints the number %d ”, 99);

displays This prints the number 99 on the screen. As you can see, this call to the printf( )
function contains two arguments. The first one is the quoted string and the other is the constant
99. Notice that the arguments are separated from each other by a comma.

In general, when there is more than one argument to a function, the arguments are separated from
each other by commas. The first argument is a quoted string that may contain either normal
characters or formal specifiers that begin with a percent (%) sign.

Normal characters are simply displayed as is on the screen in the order in which they are
encountered in the string (reading left to right). A format specifier, on the other hand informs
printf( ) that a different type item is being displayed. In this case, the %d, means that an integer,
is to be output in decimal format. The value to be displayed is to be found in the second
argument. This value is then output at the position at which the format specifier is found on the
string.

If you want to specify a character value, the format specifier is %c. To specify a floating-point
value, use %f. The %f works for both float and double. Keep in mind that the values matched
with the format specifier need not be constants, they may be variables too.

Code Format
%c Character
%d Signed decimal integers
%i Signed decimal integers
%e Scientific notation (lowercase ‘e’)
%E Scientific notation (lowercase ‘E’)
%f Decimal floating point
%s String of characters
%u Unsigned decimal integers
%x Unsigned hexadecimal (lowercase letters)
%X Unsigned hexadecimal (Uppercase letters)
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Examples
1. The program shown below illustrates the above concepts. First, it declares a variable called
num. Second, it assigns this variable the value 100. Finally, it uses printf( ) to display the value
is 100 on the screen. Examine it closely.

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int num;
num = 100;
printf(“ The value is %d “, num);
system(“pause”);
return 0;
}
This program creates variables of types char, float, and double assigns each a value and outputs
these values to the screen.
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
char ch;
float f;
double d;
ch = ‘X’;
f = 100.123;
d = 123.009;

printf(“ ch is %c “, ch);
printf(“ f is %f “, f);
printf(“ d is %f “, d);
system(“pause”);
return 0;
}

Inputting Numbers From The Keyboard Using scanf( )

There are several ways to input values through the keyboard. One of the easiest is to use another
of C’s standard library functions called scanf( ).

To use scanf( ) to read an integer value from the keyboard, call it using the general form:
scanf(“%d”, &int-var-name);

Where int-var-name is the name of the integer variable you wish to receive the value. The first
argument to scanf( ) is a string that determines how the second argument will be treated. In this
case the %d specifies that the second argument will be receiving an integer value entered in
decimal format. The fragment below, for example, reads an integer entered from the keyboard.
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PROGRAM WRITING NOTES

int num;
scanf(“%d”, &num);

The & preceding the variable name means ‘address of’. The values you enter are put into
variables using the variables’ location in memory. It allows the function to place a value into one
of its arguments.

When you enter a number at the keyboard, you are simply typing a string of digits. The scanf( )
function waits until you have pressed <ENTER> before it converts the string into the internal
format used by the computer.

The table below shows format specifiers or codes used in the scanf () function and their meaning.

Code Meaning
%c Read a single character
%d Read a decimal integer
%i Read a decimal integer
%e Read a floating point number
%f Read a floating point number
%lf Read a double
%s Read a string
%u Reads an unsigned integer
Examples

1. This program asks you to input an integer and a floating-point number and displays the value.

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int num;
float f;
printf(“ \nEnter an integer: “);
scanf( “%d “, &num);
printf(“\n Enter a floating point number: “);
scanf( “%f “, &f);
printf( “%d ”, num);
printf( “\n %f ”, f);
system(“pause”);
return 0;
}
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2. This program computes the area of a rectangle, given its dimensions. It first prompts the user
for the length and width of the rectangle and then displays the area.

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int len, width;
printf(“\n Enter length: “);
scanf (“%d “, &len);
printf(“\n Enter width : ” );
scanf( “ %d “, &width);
printf(“\n The area is %d “, len * width);
system(“pause”);
return 0;
}

Exercises

Enter, compile and run the example programs.

Write a program that inputs two floating-point numbers (use type float) and then displays their
sum.
Write a program that computes the volume of a cube. Have the program prompt the user for each
dimension.

Example: Area of a circle

#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.14
main()
{
float radius, area;
printf(“Enter the radius of the circle \n”);
scanf(“%f”, &radius);
area = PI * radius * radius; /* PI is a symbolic constant */
printf(“Area is %.2f cm squared “,area);
system(“pause”);
return 0;
}
Note:
At the time of the substitution, the text such as 3.14 is simply a string of characters composed of
3, ., 1 and 4. The preprocessor does not convert a number into any sort of internal format. This is
left to the compiler.
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Revision Exercises

Discuss four fundamental data types supported by C, stating how each type is stored in memory.
Distinguish between a variable and a constant.
Suggest, with examples two ways in which constant values can be used in C expression
statements.
Give the meaning of the following declarations;
(i) char name[20];
(ii) int num_emp;
(iii) double tax, basicpay;
(iv) char response;

What is the difference between a local and a global variable?

Write a program that will prompt you to enter the radius a cylinder. The code then calculates the
volume of the cylinder.

C PROGRAM EXAMPLES.
A C code that calculates the average of 3 integers.
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int x,y,z;
float average,sum=0.0;

printf("Enter x ");
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("Enter y ");
scanf("%d", &y);
printf("Enter z ");
scanf("%d", &z);
sum=x+y+z;
average = sum/3;
printf("\n The average is %f \n", average);
system("pause");
return 0;
}

C Program to Find Volume and Surface Area of Sphere

#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main()
{
float radius;
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PROGRAM WRITING NOTES

float surface_area, volume;

printf("Enter radius of the sphere : \n");
scanf("%f", &radius);
surface_area = 4 * (22/7) * radius * radius;
volume = (4.0/3) * (22/7) * radius * radius * radius;
printf("Surface area of sphere is: %.3f", surface_area);
printf("\n Volume of sphere is : %.3f", volume);
system("pause");
return 0;

Program to find the volume of the cylinder

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int height=38;
int radius=35;
double pie=3.14285714286;
double volume=pie*(radius*radius)*height;
printf("Volume of the cylinder=%f",volume);
}
C Program to Find the Volume and Surface Area of Cylinder

/*
* C Program to Find the Volume and Surface Area of cylinder
*/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

int main()
{

float radius, height;

float surface_area, volume;

printf("Enter value for radius and height of a cylinder : \n");

scanf("%f%f", &radius, &height);
surface_area = 2 * (22 / 7) * radius * (radius + height);
volume = (22 / 7) * radius * radius * height;
printf("Surface area of cylinder is: %.3f", surface_area);
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printf("\n Volume of cylinder is : %.3f", volume);

return 0;
}
C Program to calculate the perimeter of a square
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
float side,perimeter;
printf("enter side of square: ");
scanf("%f",&side);

perimeter=4*side;
printf("POS: %f\n",perimeter);
return 0;
}

C Program to calculate the area of a square

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main(){
float side, area;
printf("Enter length of side of square\n");
scanf("%f", &side);
/* Area of Square = Side X Side */
area = side * side;
printf("Area of square : %0.4f\n", area);

getch();
return 0;
}

Circumference Of Circle C Example Program

#include<stdio.h>
float PI = 3.14;
int main(){
float radius, ci;
printf("\nEnter the radius of Circle : ");
scanf("%f", &radius);
ci = 2 * PI * radius;

printf("\nCircumference of Circle : %f", ci);

return (0);
}
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