Utilization of Electrical Energy – Complete Exam Notes Page 1

TOPIC 18: UTILIZATION OF

ELECTRICAL ENERGY
For AEE/JE/SSC JE/RRB JE/State Exams

Contents
1 Introduction to Utilization of Electrical Energy 3
1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Major Areas of Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Industrial Drives 3
2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Classification of Electric Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Types of Drives by Number of Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4 Factors Affecting Choice of Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Motors for Various Drives 4

3.1 DC Motors for Industrial Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1.1 DC Shunt Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1.2 DC Series Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1.3 DC Compound Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 AC Motors for Industrial Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2.2 Slip Ring (Wound Rotor) Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2.3 Synchronous Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3 Special Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3.1 Universal Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3.2 Single Phase Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.4 Motor Selection Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4 Estimating and Rating of Electric Motors 6

4.1 Load Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2 Duty Cycles (IS 4722) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3 Rating of Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.4 Load Duration (ED) for Intermittent Duty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.5 Horsepower (HP) to kW Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.6 Solved Problem 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

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4.7 Solved Problem 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

5 Testing of DC and AC Motors 6

5.1 Need for Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.2 DC Motor Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2.1 1. No Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2.2 2. Brake Test (Direct Loading Test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2.3 3. Swinburne’s Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2.4 4. Hopkinson’s Test (Regenerative Test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2.5 Hopkinson’s Test Efficiency Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.3 AC Motor Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.3.1 1. No Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.3.2 2. Blocked Rotor Test (Short Circuit Test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.3.3 3. Brake Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.3.4 4. Circle Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.4 Motor Efficiency Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.5 Solved Problem 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.6 Solved Problem 4 (Hopkinson’s Test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

6 Neutral Earthing 9
6.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.2 Objectives of Neutral Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.3 Types of Neutral Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.3.1 1. Solid Earthing (Direct Earthing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.3.2 2. Resistance Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.3.3 3. Reactance Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.3.4 4. Arc Suppression Coil (Peterson Coil) Earthing . . . . . . . . . 10
6.3.5 5. Isolated Neutral (No Earthing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.4 Comparison of Earthing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.5 Advantages of Neutral Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.6 Disadvantages of Solid Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.7 Solved Problem 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

7 Selection of Earthing Based on Application 11

8 Formula Sheet – Utilization 11

9 50 Quick Revision Facts 11

10 20 Practice Problems with Answers 13

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1 Introduction to Utilization of Electrical Energy

1.1 Definition
Utilization of electrical energy refers to the application of electrical power for various
purposes such as industrial drives, heating, lighting, traction, and domestic appliances.

1.2 Major Areas of Utilization

1. Industrial Drives (motors for various applications)

2. Electric Heating

3. Electric Traction

4. Illumination (covered in Topic 3)

5. Electrochemical and Electrometallurgical processes

6. Domestic appliances

2 Industrial Drives
2.1 Definition
An industrial drive is a system that converts electrical energy into mechanical motion to
operate industrial machinery.

2.2 Classification of Electric Drives

1. By Speed: Constant speed, Variable speed

2. By Supply: AC drives, DC drives

3. By Motor Type: Induction motor drives, Synchronous motor drives, DC motor

drives

4. By Application: Group drive, Individual drive, Multi-motor drive

2.3 Types of Drives by Number of Motors

Type Description Advantages/Disadvanta

Group Drive Single motor drives many machines via belts/shafts Low cost, low efficiency, po
Individual Drive One motor per machine Better control, higher effic
Multi-motor Drive Multiple motors for different parts of one machine Best control, highest cost

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2.4 Factors Affecting Choice of Drive

1. Nature of load (continuous, intermittent, variable)

2. Speed control requirements

3. Starting torque requirements

4. Environmental conditions (dust, moisture, explosive)

5. Power supply (AC/DC, voltage, phase)

6. Cost (initial and operating)

7. Efficiency

8. Maintenance requirements

3 Motors for Various Drives

3.1 DC Motors for Industrial Drives
3.1.1 DC Shunt Motor

• Almost constant speed

• Medium starting torque

• Applications: Lathes, drilling machines, fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps

3.1.2 DC Series Motor

• Very high starting torque

• Speed varies widely with load

• Applications: Cranes, hoists, electric trains, trams

3.1.3 DC Compound Motor

• High starting torque (cumulative)

• Good speed regulation

• Applications: Elevators, rolling mills, presses

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3.2 AC Motors for Industrial Drives

3.2.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

• Simple, rugged, low cost

• Low starting torque

• Applications: Pumps, fans, compressors, conveyors

3.2.2 Slip Ring (Wound Rotor) Induction Motor

• High starting torque with external resistance

• Variable speed (rotor resistance control)

• Applications: Cranes, hoists, elevators

3.2.3 Synchronous Motor

• Constant speed

• Can operate at leading PF (power factor correction)

• Applications: Compressors, blowers, large pumps

3.3 Special Motors

3.3.1 Universal Motor

• Works on AC and DC

• Very high speed (up to 20,000 RPM)

• Applications: Portable tools, mixers, vacuum cleaners, sewing machines

3.3.2 Single Phase Induction Motors

• Split phase: Fans, blowers

• Capacitor start: Refrigerators, compressors

• Shaded pole: Small fans, toys

3.4 Motor Selection Chart

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4 Estimating and Rating of Electric Motors

4.1 Load Estimation
T ×N
P = (kW)
9550
Where: - T = torque (N-m) - N = speed (RPM)

4.2 Duty Cycles (IS 4722)

4.3 Rating of Motors

• Continuous rating: Power motor can deliver continuously without overheating

• Short-time rating: Power for specified duration (15, 30, 60 minutes)

• Intermittent rating: For S3–S5 duties, specified as

4.4 Load Duration (ED) for Intermittent Duty

Load period
%ED = × 100
Load period + Rest period

4.5 Horsepower (HP) to kW Conversion

1 HP = 746 W = 0.746 kW

4.6 Solved Problem 1

A crane motor operates for 2 minutes and rests for 3 minutes. Find %ED.
Solution: %ED = 2/(2 + 3) × 100 = 2/5 × 100 = 40%

4.7 Solved Problem 2

A motor delivers 10 N-m torque at 1500 RPM. Find power in kW and HP.
Solution: P = (10 × 1500)/9550 = 15000/9550 = 1.57 kW HP = 1.57/0.746 = 2.1 HP

5 Testing of DC and AC Motors

5.1 Need for Testing
• To verify performance meets specifications

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• To determine efficiency and losses

• For routine quality control
• For maintenance diagnostics

5.2 DC Motor Tests

5.2.1 1. No Load Test

- Motor run at rated voltage, no mechanical load - Measures: Ia , If , speed - Determines:

Iron loss + friction loss = V I0 − Ia2 Ra

5.2.2 2. Brake Test (Direct Loading Test)

- Motor loaded by brake (mechanical or electrical) - Measures input power, output torque,
speed - Determines efficiency directly

5.2.3 3. Swinburne’s Test

• For shunt machines (no-load test only)

• Efficiency calculated without full load
• Limitations: Doesn’t test commutation, temperature rise

5.2.4 4. Hopkinson’s Test (Regenerative Test)

• Two identical machines coupled (motor and generator)

• Generator output feeds motor input
• Only losses supplied from external source
• Suitable for large machines
• High accuracy

5.2.5 Hopkinson’s Test Efficiency Formula

Input − Losses
η=
Input
Total losses = External power supplied

5.3 AC Motor Tests

5.3.1 1. No Load Test

- Rated voltage applied, no load - Measures: I0 , P0 - Determines: Core loss, friction loss,
magnetizing reactance Xm

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5.3.2 2. Blocked Rotor Test (Short Circuit Test)

- Rotor blocked, reduced voltage applied to get rated current - Measures: Vsc , Isc , Psc -
Determines: Req , Xeq , starting torque

5.3.3 3. Brake Test

- Direct loading by brake - Measures input power, output torque - Determines efficiency
at various loads

5.3.4 4. Circle Diagram

• Graphical method to predict performance

• From no load and blocked rotor tests

• Gives: Efficiency, power factor, slip, torque at any load

5.4 Motor Efficiency Formula

Output Power
η= × 100
Output Power + Losses
√
3VL IL cos ϕ − Losses
η= √ × 100 (for 3-phase)
3VL IL cos ϕ

5.5 Solved Problem 3

A 3-phase induction motor draws 10 A at 400 V, 0.85 PF. Total losses = 1500 W. Find
efficiency.
√
Solution: Input power = 3 × 400 × 10 × 0.85 = 1.732 × 4000 × 0.85 = 5888 W Output
= 5888 − 1500 = 4388 W η = 4388/5888 × 100 = 74.5%

5.6 Solved Problem 4 (Hopkinson’s Test)

In Hopkinson’s test on two DC shunt machines, external power = 4 kW, armature current
of motor = 150 A, generator = 140 A, field currents: motor 4 A, generator 5 A, voltage
= 500 V. Find efficiency of each machine.
Solution: Motor input = 500 × (150 + 4) = 500 × 154 = 77, 000 W Generator output
= 500 × 140 = 70, 000 W Total losses = 77,000 - 70,000 = 7000 W (including exter-
nal 4000 W? Actually external supplies all losses) External = 4000 W, so losses from
machines = 7000 W Assuming equal losses: each machine loss = 3500 W Motor ef-
ficiency = 77, 000 − 3500)/77, 000 = 73, 500/77, 000 = 95.45% Generator efficiency =
70, 000/(70, 000 + 3500) = 70, 000/73, 500 = 95.24%

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6 Neutral Earthing
6.1 Definition
Neutral earthing is the process of connecting the neutral point of a system to earth
(ground).

6.2 Objectives of Neutral Earthing

1. Safety of personnel and equipment

2. Stabilize voltage with respect to ground

3. Provide path for ground fault current

4. Enable operation of protective relays

5. Limit transient overvoltages

6.3 Types of Neutral Earthing

6.3.1 1. Solid Earthing (Direct Earthing)

• Neutral directly connected to earth

• Used for low voltage systems (415V, 11kV sometimes)

• High ground fault current

• Good voltage stabilization

6.3.2 2. Resistance Earthing

• Neutral connected to earth through resistor

• Low resistance (400–1000 A): For generator protection

• High resistance (5–20 A): For industrial systems, limits damage

6.3.3 3. Reactance Earthing

• Neutral grounded through reactor (inductor)

• Used for high voltage systems (sometimes)

• Reduces fault current magnitude

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6.3.4 4. Arc Suppression Coil (Peterson Coil) Earthing

• Neutral grounded through tuned inductor

• Compensates capacitance current in transmission lines

• Used for 33–220 kV systems

6.3.5 5. Isolated Neutral (No Earthing)

• Neutral not connected to earth

• Low fault current, but high transient overvoltages

• Used for small systems only

6.4 Comparison of Earthing Methods

6.5 Advantages of Neutral Earthing

• Reduces shock hazard

• Stabilizes phase voltages

• Allows use of protective relays

• Limits overvoltages

6.6 Disadvantages of Solid Earthing

• High fault current (can damage equipment)

• Frequent tripping

6.7 Solved Problem 5

A 11 kV system has capacitive charging current = 10 A per phase. Find Peterson coil
current rating.
Solution: For arc suppression coil, coil current should equal total charging current. Total
charging current (all 3 phases) = 3 × 10 =√30 A Peterson coil rating = 30 A (line current)
Coil voltage = phase voltage = 11, 000/ 3 = 6351 V kVA rating = 6351 × 30 = 190.5
kVA (3-phase = 571.5 kVA)

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7 Selection of Earthing Based on Application

Application Recommended Earthing Type
Low voltage distribution (415V) Solid earthing
Industrial plants High resistance earthing
Generator neutral Low resistance earthing (400–1000 A)
Transmission lines (33–220 kV) Peterson coil
Extra high voltage (400 kV and above) Solid earthing

8 Formula Sheet – Utilization

Formula Description
P = (T × N )/9550 Power from torque (kW)
1HP = 746W HP to kW
Load period
%ED = Total cycle time
× 100 Load duration
√/Pin × 100
η = Pout Efficiency
Pin = 3V√ L IL cos ϕ 3-phase input power
Vph = VL / 3 Phase voltage
If (capacitive) = Vph ωC Charging current

9 50 Quick Revision Facts

1. Group drive: one motor drives multiple machines.
2. Individual drive: one motor per machine.
3. Multi-motor drive: multiple motors for one machine.
4. DC shunt motor: constant speed, medium torque.
5. DC series motor: high torque, variable speed.
6. DC compound motor: combines shunt and series.
7. Squirrel cage motor: simple, low starting torque.
8. Slip ring motor: high starting torque (external resistors).
9. Synchronous motor: constant speed, power factor correction.
10. Universal motor: AC/DC, high speed, portable tools.
11. 1 HP = 746 watts.
12. Continuous duty (S1): load for long duration.
13. Short-time duty (S2): load for specified time (15,30,60 min).
14. Intermittent duty (S3): load + off cycles.
15. %ED: load period / total cycle time.
16. Brake test: direct loading, measures efficiency.

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17. Swinburne’s test: for shunt machines (no load).

18. Hopkinson’s test: regenerative test for large machines.
19. No load test on IM: core + friction losses.
20. Blocked rotor test: Req , Xeq of IM.
21. Circle diagram: graphical performance prediction.
22. Neutral earthing connects neutral to ground.
23. Solid earthing: direct connection.
24. Resistance earthing: through resistor.
25. Reactance earthing: through inductor.
26. Peterson coil: tuned inductor for arc suppression.
27. Isolated neutral: no earthing.
28. Solid earthing: high fault current, good stability.
29. High resistance earthing: limits fault current to 5–20 A.
30. Low resistance earthing: 400–1000 A for generators.
31. Peterson coil compensated capacitive charging current.
32. Peterson coil used for 33–220 kV lines.
33. Cranes use DC series or slip ring motors.
34. Fans and pumps use squirrel cage induction motors.
35. Lathe machines use DC shunt or AC induction motors.
36. Refrigerators use capacitor start induction motors.
37. Portable tools use universal motors.
38. Brake test is direct loading, accurate but wasteful.
39. Hopkinson’s test is economical for large machines.
40. No load test on DC motor: iron + friction losses.
41. Brake test on DC motor: requires mechanical loading.
42. Efficiency of large motors: 85–95%.
43. Efficiency of small motors: 60–80%.
44. Power factor of induction motors improves with load.
45. Starting torque of slip ring motor: controlled by resistors.
46. Starting torque of squirrel cage motor: low (1.5–2× FLT).
47. Duty cycle S1: continuous, S2: short time, S3: intermittent.
48. For 15% ED, motor runs 15 seconds in 100 seconds cycle.
49. Peterson coil tuned to 1/(ωL) = 3ωC.
50. Neutral grounding resistor limits earth fault current.

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10 20 Practice Problems with Answers

# Problem Answer
1 2 HP motor in kW 1.492 kW
2 Torque = 50 N-m, N=1440 RPM, find kW 7.54 kW
3 ED: 1 min load, 2 min rest 33.33%
4 3-phase: 400V, 20A, 0.85 PF, input power 11.78 kW
5 Efficiency = 85%, input = 10 kW, output 8.5 kW
6 Swinburne’s test used for DC shunt machines
7 Hopkinson’s test requires Two identical machines
8 Blocked rotor test gives Req , Xeq
9 Peterson coil compensates Capacitive charging current
10 Solid earthing fault current magnitude Very high
11 High resistance earthing current range 5–20 A
12 Crane motor type DC series / slip ring
13 Lathe motor type DC shunt / induction
14 Universal motor application Portable tools
15 Circle diagram uses which tests? No load + blocked rotor
16 1 HP = 746 W
17 S3 duty means Intermittent periodic
18 Neutral connected through inductor is Reactance earthing
19 Peterson coil also called Arc suppression coil
20 For 10A/phase charging current, coil current 30 A

END OF TOPIC 18 – UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Compiled as per TTDER AEE (Electrical) Syllabus

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