BSc Honours in Meteorology and Climate Science

Tutorial Work Sheet

1. Condensation nuclei may be:

a. particles of dust
b. smoke from forest fires
c. salt from the ocean
d. nitric acid particles
e. all of the above

2. Condensation nuclei are important in the atmosphere because they:

a. provide most of the minerals found in water
b. make it easier for condensation to occur in the atmosphere
c. are the sole producers of smog
d. filter sunlight
e. provide the only means we have of tracking wind motions

3. Which of the following is not a way of producing clouds?

a. lifting air along a topographic barrier
b. lifting air along a front
c. warming the surface of the earth
d. convergence of surface air
e. air motions caused by subsidence

4. Which of the following is not an important factor in the production of rain by the
collision-coalescence process?
a. the updraughts in the cloud
b. relative size of the droplets
c. the number of ice crystals in the cloud
d. cloud thickness
e. the electric charge of the droplets

5. The merging of liquid cloud droplets by collision is called:

a. coalescence
b. riming
c. accretion
d. deposition

6. During the ice crystal process of rain formation:

a. only ice crystals need be present in a cloud
b. ice crystals grow at the expense of the surrounding liquid cloud droplets
c. the temperature in the cloud must be – 40oC of below

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 d. the cloud must be a cumuliform cloud

7. Homogeneous nucleation occurs when

a. water vapour condenses onto hygroscopic nuclei
b. water vapour condenses onto hydrophobic nuclei
c. water vapour condenses without nuclei
d. all the condensation nuclei are exactly the same

8. Ice nuclei may be:

a. ice crystals
b. certain clay minerals
c. bacteria in decaying plant leaf material
d. all of the above

9. The growth of a precipitation particle by the collision of an ice crystal with a

supercooled liquid droplet is called:
a. accretion
b. spontaneous nucleation
c. condensation
d. deposition

10. Dew is most likely to form on:

a. clear, calm nights
b. clear, windy nights
c. cloudy, calm nights
d. cloudy, windy nights
e. rainy nights

11. The name given to a liquid drop of dew that freezes when the air temperature drops
below zero is:
a. frost
b. black frost
c. hoar frost
d. white frost
e. frozen dew

12. The cooling of the ground to produce dew is mainly the result of:
a. conduction
b. radiational cooling
c. the release of latent heat
d. advection

13. For frozen dew to form:

a. the dew point must be above freezing
b. the minimum temperature must fall to freezing or below
c. dew must form and then freeze
d. all of the above

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14. Frost forms when:
a. objects on the ground cool below the dew point temperature
b. the dew point is 0oC or below
c. water vapour changes into ice without first becoming liquid
d. all of the above

15. When you see your breath on a cold morning the air temperature:
a. must be above freezing
b. must be below freezing
c. can be above or below freezing
d. must be equal to the relative humidity

16. Under what circumstances could the relative humidity exceed 100 per cent
without producing fog?
a. the dew point is higher than the air temperature
b. the air is perfectly dry
c. there are no condensation nuclei present
d. there are too many electrically-charged ions in the air

17. When radiation for “burns off’, the fog tends to dissipate
a. from the bottom up
b. from the top down
c. starting in the middle, and working both upward and downward

18. On a cold, calm autumn morning the formation of fog above a relatively warm
lake would most likely be:
a. radiational fog
b. steam fog
c. frontal fog
d. advection fog
e. upslope fog

19. The vertical motion of the air caused by the sun heating the ground is called:
a. Convergence
b. convection
c. cyclonic lifting
d. orographic lifting
e. subsidence

20. In a rising thermal, the dew point temperature:

a. increases at a slower rate than the parcel temperature
b. decreases at the same rate as the parcel temperature
c. decreases at a slower rate than the parcel temperature
d. increases at a faster rate than the parcel temperature

21. Define the term aerosol.

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22. Define saturation and state the most common means by which air can become
supersaturated in the atmosphere.
23. Distinguish between homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation.

24. Liquid water can exist at temperatures below 0oC. Explain.

25. List any six sources of cloud condensation nuclei.
26. Describe droplet by collision and coalescence.

27. Illustrate the growth of a raindrop by condensation graphically.

28. Explain why spontaneous nucleation of water vapour into does not occur in the
atmosphere.
29. Describe any two ice crystal growth processes in clouds.
30. Define four different types of frost.
31. Outline the formation of hoar frost.
32. Explain how ice crystal growth occurs by the riming.
33. Explain why spontaneous nucleation of water vapour into cloud droplets does not
occur in the atmosphere.
34. Describe artificial modification of clouds and precipitation.
35. Water in a freezer freezes at a temperature of -5 º C whereas supercooled liquid
water droplets with temperatures of about -30 º C are found in clouds. Explain.
36. Outline the basic principle of radars in estimating and identifying the different
types of clouds and precipitation types.
37. Describe the role of remote sensing in estimating precipitation.
38. Outline any four methods which can be used to improve visibility at airport and
airport runways.
39. Define the following terms: cloud and precipitation.
40. Explain what saturation means and list 2 ways in which an air parcel reach es
saturation level.
41. Discuss the importance of aerosols in cloud formation processes.
42. Explain the differences between homogenous and heterogeneous nucleation in cloud
droplet formation processes.
43. Super cooled water droplets can exist in the atmosphere below 0 C. Explain how this
is possible.
44. Outline cloud droplet growth by the Collision and Coalescence process.
45. Outline any 2 natural processes which might result in the dissipation of clouds in the
atmosphere.
46. Outline the characteristics of an atmosphere which is favorable for fog or frost
formation.
47. List any four types of frost you know.
48. Outline the formation of hoar frost.
49. Explain how ice crystal growth occurs by the riming.
50. Explain why spontaneous nucleation of water vapor into cloud droplets does
not occur in the atmosphere.
51. Describe artificial modification of clouds and precipitation.
52. Outline the basic principle of radars in estimating and identifying the different
types of clouds and precipitation types.
53. Describe the role of remote sensing in estimating precipitation.
54. Outline any four methods which can be used to improve visibility at airports and
airport runways.

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55. Derive an expression for the growth of a raindrop by condensation.

56. Outline how clouds can be naturally dispersed in the atmosphere.

57. Describe droplet growth by the Bowen-Ludlum warm rain formation process.
Hence or otherwise, show that rate of growth of a cloud droplet is given by:
58.
dR EwV
=
dt 4
59. Describe the formation of steam and advection fog.
60. Describe the atmospheric characteristics which favour the formation of fog,
dew or frost.
61. Describe how clouds may be dispersed artificially at airport runways.
62. Explain why spontaneous ice crystal formation in the atmosphere only occurs at
the top of the atmosphere.
63. Describe the Bergeron-Findeison process.
64. Explain how ice crystal growth occurs by the aggregation process.
65. Describe the development of hailstones in clouds.
66. As a cloud modelling physicist, describe the various options which can be explored
to modify clouds, and precipitation in the atmosphere.
67. Define all the symbols in the basic Radar equation:

68. Outline the basic parameters which can be estimated or measured by Radars.

69. Outline the parameters you would consider as inputs if you were to develop a cloud
formation model in an ideal atmosphere.
70. Derive an expression for the growth of a raindrop by condensation.
71. Explain how aerosol affects cloud droplet formation and development

72. Describe how fog may be dispersed artificially at airport runways. Describe
the development of hailstones in clouds.
73. Describe artificial modification of clouds and precipitation.
74.
75. Outline any four methods which can be used to improve visibility at airports and
airport runways.
76.
77. Distinguish the difference between warm clouds, cold clouds and mixed clouds.

78. Outline the basic principle of radars in estimating and identifying the different
types of clouds and precipitation types.

79. Describe the role of remote sensing in estimating precipitation.

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24. Liquid water can exist at temperatures below 0°C. Explain.

Liquid water can remain in a liquid state below 0°C due to the phenomenon of supercooling.
This occurs when water droplets do not have sufficient impurities or nucleation sites to
initiate freezing. In the absence of these sites, water can remain in a liquid state even at sub-
zero temperatures, typically down to about -40°C. This is often observed in clouds where
supercooled liquid water droplets are present.

25. List any six sources of cloud condensation nuclei.

1. Dust particles: Soil and dust from the Earth's surface can act as nuclei for water
vapor to condense upon.
2. Sea salt: Aerosol particles from ocean spray provide surfaces for cloud formation.
3. Smoke from fires: Particulates from wildfires and biomass burning contribute to
cloud condensation nuclei.
4. Pollen: Biological particles from plants can serve as nuclei in the atmosphere.
5. Volcanic ash: Particles released during volcanic eruptions can enhance cloud
formation.
6. Industrial pollutants: Emissions from factories and vehicles introduce various
aerosols into the atmosphere, acting as CCN.

26. Describe droplet growth by collision and coalescence.

Droplet growth through collision and coalescence involves small cloud droplets colliding
with each other. When these droplets meet, they can merge to form larger droplets. This
process is facilitated by updrafts within clouds that keep droplets suspended, increasing the
likelihood of collisions. As larger droplets form, they can overcome air resistance and
eventually fall as precipitation. This mechanism is particularly important in warm clouds,
where temperatures are above freezing.

27. Illustrate the growth of a raindrop by condensation graphically.

While I cannot create images, you can visualize this process as a graph where the x-axis
represents time and the y-axis represents the droplet radius. The curve would show an initial
slow growth phase, where droplets gather moisture, followed by a rapid growth phase as
coalescence occurs, ultimately leading to larger raindrops.

28. Explain why spontaneous nucleation of water vapor into cloud droplets
does not occur in the atmosphere.

Spontaneous nucleation requires a very high degree of supersaturation, which is generally not
achieved in the atmosphere. Without sufficient condensation nuclei, water vapor tends to
remain in the gas state, as the energy barrier for droplet formation is too high. In typical
atmospheric conditions, the presence of aerosols provides the necessary surfaces that greatly
facilitate condensation, making spontaneous nucleation unlikely.

29. Describe any two ice crystal growth processes in clouds.

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 1. Deposition: This process occurs when water vapor transitions directly to ice without
becoming liquid first. In cold clouds, ice nuclei attract water vapor, causing it to
deposit directly onto the ice, allowing crystals to grow.
2. Riming: Riming happens when supercooled liquid droplets collide with ice crystals.
Upon contact, the droplets freeze instantly, adding mass to the ice crystals. This
process can lead to the formation of graupel or larger hailstones.

30. Define four different types of frost.

1. Hoar frost: Forms when water vapor in the air deposits as ice on surfaces during cold
nights, typically when temperatures drop below freezing.
2. White frost: Similar to hoar frost, it forms under similar conditions but may be
denser and appears as a white coating on surfaces.
3. Black frost: Occurs when temperatures drop below freezing without visible frost
formation. It can be particularly deceptive as it may not be immediately apparent.
4. Frozen dew: This occurs when liquid dew forms and subsequently freezes when
temperatures fall below zero, creating a layer of ice on surfaces.

31. Outline the formation of hoar frost.

Hoar frost forms during clear, calm nights when the ground loses heat through radiation,
cooling the air near the surface. When the air temperature drops to the dew point, water vapor
condenses directly onto surfaces as ice, resulting in the formation of crystalline frost.

32. Explain how ice crystal growth occurs by riming.

Riming occurs when supercooled droplets collide with existing ice crystals. Upon contact, the
droplets freeze instantly, adding layers of ice onto the crystal. This process can significantly
increase the size of the ice crystal and is a key mechanism in the growth of hailstones.

33. Explain why spontaneous nucleation of water vapor into cloud droplets
does not occur in the atmosphere.

As noted earlier, spontaneous nucleation is inhibited because it requires a high level of

supersaturation that is rarely attained in nature. The energy barrier to forming droplets
without existing nuclei is substantial. Consequently, the presence of aerosols acts as a catalyst
for droplet formation, making spontaneous nucleation unnecessary.

34. Describe artificial modification of clouds and precipitation.

Artificial modification involves techniques such as cloud seeding, where substances (like
silver iodide or sodium chloride) are dispersed into clouds to promote precipitation. This can
enhance rainfall in dry areas or mitigate severe weather conditions such as hail. The
effectiveness of these techniques depends on the existing atmospheric conditions.

35. Water in a freezer freezes at a temperature of -5°C whereas supercooled

liquid water droplets with temperatures of about -30°C are found in clouds.
Explain.

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Supercooled droplets can exist at temperatures below freezing due to the lack of nucleation
sites. In a freezer, the presence of impurities facilitates the formation of ice crystals at -5°C.
In contrast, in the atmosphere, supercooled droplets remain liquid down to -30°C because
without surfaces to initiate freezing, the water remains in a liquid state despite low
temperatures.

36. Outline the basic principle of radars in estimating and identifying the
different types of clouds and precipitation types.

Radars emit radio waves that interact with precipitation particles in the atmosphere. When
these waves hit droplets or ice particles, they are reflected back to the radar. By analyzing the
strength and characteristics of the returned signals, meteorologists can infer the type (rain,
snow, hail) and intensity of precipitation, as well as cloud structure and height.

37. Describe the role of remote sensing in estimating precipitation.

Remote sensing utilizes satellite imagery and ground-based instruments to gather data about
atmospheric conditions. By analyzing cloud properties, temperature, and moisture content,
scientists can estimate precipitation levels. Remote sensing helps monitor large-scale weather
patterns and provides timely data for weather forecasting.

38. Outline any four methods which can be used to improve visibility at
airports and airport runways.

1. Runway lighting systems: High-intensity lights that enhance visibility for pilots
during low-visibility conditions.
2. Fog dispersal techniques: Using chemicals or other methods to promote
precipitation, thus reducing fog density.
3. Regular weather updates: Providing real-time weather information to pilots for
better situational awareness.
4. Use of radar systems: Employing radar to detect and monitor weather conditions,
helping pilots navigate safely.

39. Define the following terms: cloud and precipitation.

• Cloud: A visible mass of condensed water vapor in the atmosphere, formed by the
cooling of air and condensation of water vapor into tiny droplets or ice crystals.
• Precipitation: Any form of water, whether liquid (rain, drizzle) or solid (snow, sleet,
hail), that falls from clouds to the Earth's surface.

40. Explain what saturation means and list 2 ways in which an air parcel
reaches saturation level.

Saturation occurs when air contains the maximum amount of water vapor it can hold at a
specific temperature and pressure.

1. Cooling the air: As air rises, it expands and cools, potentially reaching its dew point
and becoming saturated.

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 2. Adding moisture: Introducing additional water vapor into the air parcel can increase
its humidity to the saturation point.

41. Discuss the importance of aerosols in cloud formation processes.

Aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), providing surfaces for water vapor to
condense into droplets. The presence of aerosols influences droplet size distribution, cloud
reflectivity, and precipitation efficiency. Without aerosols, the formation of cloud droplets
would require much higher levels of supersaturation, making cloud formation less efficient.

42. Explain the differences between homogeneous and heterogeneous

nucleation in cloud droplet formation processes.

• Homogeneous nucleation: Occurs when water vapor condenses into droplets without
any external surfaces. It requires a high degree of supersaturation and is less common
in the atmosphere.
• Heterogeneous nucleation: Involves the condensation of water vapor onto existing
surfaces, such as aerosols. This process lowers the energy barrier for droplet
formation, making it more frequent and efficient in typical atmospheric conditions.

43. Supercooled water droplets can exist in the atmosphere below 0°C.
Explain how this is possible.

Supercooled water droplets can remain liquid below 0°C because they lack sufficient
nucleation sites, such as impurities that would trigger freezing. In the atmosphere, these
droplets can exist down to -40°C without freezing, as long as there are no surfaces to promote
ice formation.

44. Outline cloud droplet growth by the Collision and Coalescence process.

Cloud droplet growth by the collision and coalescence process involves small droplets
colliding with each other. When droplets collide, they can merge to form larger droplets.
Updrafts within clouds help keep smaller droplets suspended, increasing their chances of
colliding and coalescing. As larger droplets form, they can overcome air resistance and fall as
precipitation.

45. Outline any 2 natural processes which might result in the dissipation of
clouds in the atmosphere.

1. Subsidence: This occurs when air sinks, warming and drying as it descends, which
can lead to the evaporation of clouds.
2. Radiative cooling: During the night, clouds can lose heat through radiation, leading
to cooling and potential dissipation.

46. Outline the characteristics of an atmosphere which is favorable for fog or

frost formation.

• High humidity: Ensures there is enough moisture for condensation.

• Calm winds: Minimizes mixing and allows for localized cooling.

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 • Clear skies at night: Promotes radiative cooling, which can lower temperatures to
the dew point.
• Temperature inversions: A layer of warmer air traps cooler air near the surface,
increasing the likelihood of fog or frost.

47. List any four types of frost you know.

1. Hoar frost: Forms from direct deposition of water vapor as ice on surfaces.
2. White frost: Similar to hoar frost but typically denser.
3. Black frost: Occurs when temperatures drop below freezing without visible frost.
4. Frozen dew: Liquid dew that freezes when temperatures fall below zero.

48. Outline the formation of hoar frost.

Hoar frost forms during clear, calm nights when the ground loses heat through radiation. This
cooling causes the air near the surface to reach the dew point, leading to the deposition of
water vapor as ice on surfaces, resulting in crystalline frost.

49. Explain how ice crystal growth occurs by riming.

Riming occurs when supercooled water droplets collide with ice crystals. Upon contact, the
droplets freeze instantly, adding layers of ice to the crystal. This process increases the size of
the crystal and contributes to the formation of larger precipitation particles, such as hail.

50. Explain why spontaneous nucleation of water vapor into cloud droplets
does not occur in the atmosphere.

Spontaneous nucleation requires a high level of supersaturation, which is rarely achieved in

natural atmospheric conditions. The absence of sufficient condensation nuclei means that
water vapor remains uncondensed unless facilitated by existing particles, making
spontaneous nucleation unlikely.

51. Describe artificial modification of clouds and precipitation.

Artificial modification, such as cloud seeding, involves dispersing substances like silver
iodide into clouds to encourage precipitation. This technique can enhance rainfall in arid
regions or mitigate severe weather conditions like hail. The effectiveness depends on existing
atmospheric conditions and requires careful monitoring.

52. Outline the basic principle of radars in estimating and identifying the
different types of clouds and precipitation types.

Radars emit radio waves that interact with precipitation particles. When these waves hit
droplets or ice, they reflect back to the radar. By analyzing the returned signals,
meteorologists can determine the type (rain, snow, hail) and intensity of precipitation and
assess cloud structure.

53. Describe the role of remote sensing in estimating precipitation.

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Remote sensing uses satellite imagery and ground-based sensors to monitor atmospheric
properties. By analyzing cloud structures, moisture content, and temperature profiles, remote
sensing provides estimates of precipitation levels, aiding in weather forecasting and climate
studies.

54. Outline any four methods which can be used to improve visibility at
airports and airport runways.

1. Runway lighting systems: High-intensity lights enhance visibility during adverse

weather.
2. Fog dispersal techniques: Chemicals can be used to promote precipitation and
reduce fog density.
3. Regular weather updates: Real-time information helps pilots navigate safely.
4. Use of radar systems: Radar technology detects and monitors weather conditions,
improving situational awareness.

55. Derive an expression for the growth of a raindrop by condensation.

To derive an expression for raindrop growth, we can use the Köhler theory. The growth rate
of a raindrop can be expressed as:

56. Outline how clouds can be naturally dispersed in the atmosphere.

Clouds can disperse through:

1. Subsidence: Sinking air warms and dries, leading to evaporation.

2. Radiative cooling: Night time cooling can cause clouds to dissipate as temperatures
drop.
3. Dry air advection: The movement of dry air into a moist area can disrupt cloud
formation.

57. Describe droplet growth by the Bowen-Ludlum warm rain formation

process.

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The Bowen-Ludlum process describes how small cloud droplets collide and coalesce within
warm clouds. As small droplets are lifted by updrafts, they collide and merge, forming larger
droplets. Eventually, when droplets grow heavy enough, they overcome the upward forces
and fall as rain.

58. (This question is not specified. Please provide details if needed.)

59. Describe the formation of steam and advection fog.

• Steam fog: Forms when cold air moves over warm water, causing water vapor to rise
and condense into fog.
• Advection fog: Develops when warm, moist air moves over a cooler surface, cooling
to the dew point and forming fog. This is common along coastlines.

60. Describe the atmospheric characteristics which favor the formation of fog,
dew, or frost.

• High humidity: Ensures sufficient moisture for condensation.

• Calm winds: Reduces mixing, allowing cooling and condensation.
• Clear skies at night: Promotes radiative cooling.
• Temperature inversions: Trap cooler air near the ground, increasing the likelihood
of fog or frost.

61. Describe how clouds may be dispersed artificially at airport runways.

Clouds can be dispersed artificially through techniques such as cloud seeding, where
substances are introduced to promote precipitation, thereby reducing fog density and
enhancing visibility.

62. Explain why spontaneous ice crystal formation in the atmosphere only
occurs at the top of the atmosphere.

Spontaneous ice crystal formation is more likely at higher altitudes where temperatures are
consistently low enough to favor ice nucleation. The conditions at these altitudes often allow
for supersaturation with respect to ice, facilitating the formation of ice crystals.

63. Describe the Bergeron-Findeison process.

The Bergeron-Findeison process describes how ice crystals grow in cold clouds. Water vapor
preferentially deposits onto existing ice crystals rather than supercooled liquid droplets due to
differences in vapor pressure, leading to larger ice crystals that eventually fall as
precipitation.

64. Explain how ice crystal growth occurs by the aggregation process.

Aggregation occurs when ice crystals collide and stick together, forming larger crystals. This
process contributes to the development of snowflakes and enhances the intensity of snowfall.

65. Describe the development of hailstones in clouds.

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Hailstones form in strong thunderstorms with intense updrafts. Small ice pellets are created,
which are then cycled through regions of supercooled water in the cloud. As they collide with
supercooled droplets, they accumulate layers of ice until they become too heavy and fall as
hail.

66. As a cloud modeling physicist, describe the various options which can be
explored to modify clouds and precipitation in the atmosphere.

Options include:

• Cloud seeding: Introducing particles to enhance precipitation.

• Fog dispersal: Using chemicals to promote droplet growth.
• Altering atmospheric conditions: Modifying temperature and humidity profiles to
influence cloud formation.

68. Outline the basic parameters which can be estimated or measured by

Radars.

1. Precipitation type: Identifying rain, snow, or hail.

2. Intensity of precipitation: Measuring the rate of rainfall or snowfall.
3. Wind velocity: Using the Doppler effect to assess wind patterns.
4. Cloud height and structure: Determining cloud base and thickness.

69. Outline the parameters you would consider as inputs if you were to
develop a cloud formation model in an ideal atmosphere.

1. Temperature profiles: Understanding how temperature changes with altitude.

2. Humidity levels: Measuring moisture content in the atmosphere.
3. Atmospheric pressure: Assessing pressure variations that influence air movement.
4. Wind patterns: Analyzing how wind influences cloud formation and movement.
5. Aerosol concentrations: Evaluating the presence of condensation nuclei that aid
droplet formation.

70. Derive an expression for the growth of a raindrop by condensation.

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The expression for the growth of a raindrop can be expressed using the Köhler theory, which
outlines how droplets grow in a supersaturated environment:

71. Explain how aerosol affects cloud droplet formation and development.

Aerosols serve as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), facilitating the condensation of water
vapor into droplets. The size and concentration of aerosols influence droplet size distribution
and the efficiency of precipitation, as more aerosols can lead to smaller droplets that may not
coalesce efficiently.

72.

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