Grade -9 Chemistry Note
3.5 Composition of an Atom and the
Isotopes
Atoms have different properties based on the arrangement and
the number of their sub-atomic particles. Some elements have
the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons.
This resulted in same elements having different masses, which
in turn led to different properties. In this section, we are going to
discuss about the electrons, the protons, and the neutrons in
relation to the atomic structure, mass, and charge.
3.5.1 Electrons, Protons and Neutrons
Electrons
Electrons are one of three fundamental particles that make up
the atoms. Electrons are extremely small. The mass of an
electron is only about 1/2000 the mass of a proton or a neutron,
which is about 0.00054897 amu or 9 x 10-31 Kg.
So, electrons contribute almost nothing to the total mass of an
atom. The electric charge of an electron is −1, which is equal but
opposite to the charge of a proton. All atoms have identical
number of electrons and protons, so the positive and negative
charges ‘cancel out’ making atoms electrically neutral
The Protons
The proton is one of the three sub-atomic particles that make up
the atom. They are found in the nucleus of the atom (Figure
3.24). It is a tiny, compact region at the center of the atom.
Protons have a positive electrical charge of one (+1) and a mass
of 1.0073 atomic mass unit (amu), which is about 1.67×10-27 Kg.
Together with neutrons, they make up virtually all of the mass of
an atom.
The Neutrons
Atoms of all elements apart from most atoms of hydrogen have
neutrons in their nucleus. Unlike the protons and the electrons,
which are electrically charged, neutrons have no charge. That’s
why the neutrons in are labeled n°. The zero stands for ‘zero
charge’. The mass of a neutron (1.0087 amu) is a little greater
than the mass of a proton, which is 1 atomic mass unit (amu).
An atomic mass unit equals about 1.67×10-27 Kg.
A neutron also has about the same diameter as a proton, or
1.7×10-15 meters.
3.5.2 Atomic Number and Mass Number
An atom of one element can be distinguished from an atom of
another element by the number of protons in its nucleus. The
number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number (Z).
This number is very important because it is unique for atoms of
a given element. All atoms of an element have identical number
of protons, and every element has a diverse number of protons in
its atoms
Of course, since neutral atoms have the same number of
electrons to that of proton, an element’s atomic number also tells
you how many electrons are in a neutral atom of that element.
Atoms are neutral in electrical charge because they have the
same number of negative electrons as positive protons. For
example, hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. This means that
an atom of hydrogen has one proton, and, if it’s neutral, has one
electron as well.
Carbon, on the other hand, has an atomic number of 6, which
means that an atom of carbon has 6 protons, and, if it’s neutral,
has 6 electrons as well.
Mass Number
The mass number (A) of an atom is the total number of protons
and neutrons in its nucleus. It is also known as the total number
of nucleons in the atom’s nucleus. Do not confuse atomic mass
with mass number because it is the average weight of an
element. Counting the number of protons and neutrons tells
scientists about the total mass of an atom.
Mass number A = (number of protons) + (number of neutrons)
An atom’s mass number is very easy to calculate, provided that
you know the number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Example: How many protons, electrons, and neutrons are in an
atom of K (mass number of 40)?
Solution
Atomic number = (number of protons) = 19
For all atoms with no charge, the number of electrons is equal to
the number of protons.
Therefore, number of protons = number of electrons = 19
To find the number of neutrons, subtract the number of protons
from the mass number.
Number of neutrons = 40 - 19 = 21
Representation of Mass Number and Atomic Number in a
Nuclear Symbol of an Element
There is a common way in which scientists commonly express
the mass number and the atomic number of an atom. To write a
nuclear symbol, the mass number is placed at the upper left
(superscript) of the chemical symbol, and the atomic number is
placed at the lower left (subscript) of the symbol.
Example 3.4: The complete nuclear symbol for hydrogen mass
number 1, helium mass number 4, lithium mass number 7,
beryllium mass number 9, boron mass number 11 and carbon
mass number 12 is given below:
3.5.3 Atomic Mass and Isotope
All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons,
but some may have different numbers of neutrons.
For example, all carbon atoms have six protons, and most have
six neutrons as well. But some carbon atoms have seven or eight
neutrons instead of the usual six.
Atoms of the same element that differ in their numbers of
neutrons are called isotopes. Many isotopes occur naturally.
Usually, one or two isotopes of an element are the most stable
and common. Different isotopes of an element generally have
the same physical and chemical properties because they have the
same numbers of protons and electrons.
Example 3.5: Hydrogen Isotopes Hydrogen is an example of an
element that has isotopes.
Most hydrogen atoms have just one proton, one electron, and
lack a neutron.
These atoms are just called hydrogen. This isotope of hydrogen
is also known as protium.
Some hydrogen atoms have one neutron as well. These atoms
are the isotope named deuterium. Other hydrogen atoms have
two neutrons. These atoms are the isotope named tritium.
They are also known as heavy hydrogen.
The three most stable isotopes of hydrogen: protium (A = 1),
deuterium (A = 2), and tritium (A = 3).
For most elements other than hydrogen, isotopes are named for
their mass number.
For example, carbon atoms with the usual 6 neutrons have a
mass number of 12 (6 protons + 6 neutrons = 12), so they are
called carbon-12.
Carbon atoms with 7 neutrons have an atomic mass of 13 (6
protons + 7 neutrons = 13). These atoms are the isotope called
carbon-13.
Stability of Isotopes
Atoms need a certain proportion of neutrons to protons to have a
stable nucleus. Having too many or too few neutrons relative to
protons, results in an unstable, or radioactive, nucleus that will
sooner or later breakdown to a more stable form. This process is
called radioactive decay. Many isotopes have radioactive nuclei,
and these isotopes are referred to as radioisotopes. When they
decay, they release particles that may be destructive.
The isotope of carbon known as carbon-14 is an example of a
radioisotope. In contrast, the carbon isotopes called carbon-12
and carbon-13 are stable.
Elements found in nature exist as constant uniform mixtures of
their naturally occurring isotopes. In other words, a piece of
lithium metal always contains both types of naturally occurring
lithium (the type with 3 neutrons and the type with 4 neutrons).
Moreover, it always contains the two in the same relative
abundance. In a lump of lithium, 93% will always be lithium
with 4 neutrons, while the remaining 7% will always be lithium
with 3 neutrons.
Atomic Mass
Masses of separate atoms are very, very small. Using a modern
device called a mass spectrometer; it is possible to measure such
tiny masses. An atom of oxygen-16, for example, has a mass of
2.66×10-23 g. While comparisons of masses measured in grams
would have some utility, it is far more practical to have a system
that will permit us to more easily compare relative atomic
masses.
Scientists decided on using the carbon-12 nuclide as the
reference standard by which all other masses would be
compared.
By definition, one atom of carbon-12 is assigned a mass of 12
atomic mass units (a.m.u).
An atomic mass unit is defined as a mass equal to one-twelfth
the mass of an atom of carbon-12 or 1.992646547 × 10−23 g,
which is assigned an atomic mass of 12 units.
In this scale, 1a.m.u corresponds to 1.660539040×10−24 g.
The mass of any isotope of any element is expressed in relation
to the carbon-12 standard. For example, one atom of helium-4
has a mass of 4.0026 amu. An atom of sulfur-32 has a mass of
31.972 amu.
Average Atomic Mass
Since many elements have some isotopes, chemists use average
atomic mass. If we know the natural abundance and the mass of
all the isotopes, we can find the average atomic mass. The
natural abundance of an isotope of an element is the percent of
that isotope as it occurs in a sample on earth. The average
atomic mass is merely a weighted average of the masses of all
the isotopes. We can calculate this by the following equation:
Average Atomic Mass = [(% isotope 1) (mass of isotope
1)] ÷ 100 + [(% isotope 2) (mass of isotope 2)] ÷ 100 + ...
Example: Find the average mass of lithium (Li-7, 93% and Li-6,
7%).
Average mass of lithium = (7 x 93) ÷100 + (6 x 7) ÷100
6.51 + 0.42 = 6.93
The average atomic mass of lithium is, therefore, 6.93 amu.
3.5.4 Main Energy Levels
The concept of orbits in which electrons revolve around the
nucleus was proposed by a student of Rutherford named Neil’s
Bohr in1913.
Today, in chemistry, the principal energy level or the main
energy level of an electron refers to the shell in which the
electron is located relative to the atom’s nucleus. This level is
denoted by the principal quantum number n. The principal
quantum number could also be denoted by the whole numbers 1,
2, 3, 4 . . . or by the letters K, L, M, N, etc.
The energy of the orbit sometimes known as the shell increases
upon moving away from the nucleus i.e., it follows the
increasing order K < L < M < N or 1 < 2 < 3 < 4, etc.
3.5.5 Electronic Configuration on Main Shells
We picture an atom as a small nucleus surrounded by a much
larger volume of space containing the electrons. This space is
divided into regions called principal energy levels.
Each principal energy level can contain up to 2n2 electrons,
where n is the number of the level (n = 1, 2, 3, etc.).
Thus, the first level can contain up to 2 electrons, 2(12) = 2;
the second up to 8 electrons, 2(22) = 8;
the third up to 18, 2(32) = 18, and so on.
Only seven energy levels are needed to contain all the electrons
in an atom of any of those elements known thus far.
The systematic arrangement of electrons in the various shell or
orbits in an atom is called electronic configuration. The electron
configuration of an element describes how electrons are
distributed in their energy levels or shells.
Electron configurations of atoms in the main energy levels
follow a standard notation in which the number of electrons
arranged in all electron containing atomic shells is placed in a
sequence. Filling energy levels with electrons begins from the
lower in energy or the shell closer to the nucleus i.e., K shell and
goes on sequentially to L, M, N, etc.
The maximum number of electrons that can be filled in the
valence shell is 8
Example 3.6: The atomic number of calcium is 20. Write the
electronic configuration of calcium.
Ca = 2, 8, 8, 2.
Example 3.7: Write the electronic configuration of Argon
(electrons 18).
Solution: Following the same procedure as calcium, the
electronic configuration of argon will be:
Ar = 2, 8, 8.
3.5.6 Valence Electrons
The energy related with an energy level increases as the distance
from the nucleus increases. An electron in the seventh energy
level has more energy associated with it than does one in the
first energy level. The lesser the number of the principal energy
level, the closer the electron in it is to the nucleus, and the more
tough (hard) it is to remove this electron from the atom, due to
strong electrostatic attraction.
The electrons that occupy the outermost shell of an atom are
called valence electrons.
Valence electrons are furthest from the nucleus of the atom.
They are the most easily lost, and the ones that determine the
element’s chemical properties, and how an atom will react.
Atoms lose, gain, or share their valence electrons during
chemical reactions.
By writing an electronic configuration, you will be able to see
how many electrons occupy the highest energy level.
Example 3.8: The electronic configuration of silicon (Si)
Is 2, 8, 4. The first two electrons occupy the inner shell (K), the
next 8 electrons occupy the middle shell (L), and the remaining
4 electrons occupy the outermost shell (M) known as the valence
shell
Example 3.9: The electronic configuration of argon (Ar) is 2, 8,
8. The valence shell of the argon atom is the M shell having 8
valence electrons
……
The earliest version of the current form of periodic table was
presented simultaneously by Dmitri Mendeleev of Russia and
Lothar Meyer of Germany
Both the scientists arranged the elements in order of increasing
atomic weights and observed that elements with similar
properties (in families) appeared at regular intervals
Mendeleev’s periodic law stated that the physical and chemical
properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic
weights. In 1871, Mendeleev published a short periodic table
which
1. Consisted of only 63 elements. Inert gases were not included
as they were not discovered at that time.
2. These elements were arranged in seven horizontal rows called
as periods and eight vertical columns called as groups.
3. Some vacant sites were specified for undiscovered elements
and their properties predicted. These were found true and
verified when these elements were discovered later.
In the periodic table, so constructed, the elements in the same
families (e.g., lithium, sodium, potassium) were arranged in
vertical columns designated as Groups I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII,
VIII.
The horizontal rows were referred to as series Mendeleev’s
periodic table was later modified after the discovery of inert
gases and several other elements.
According to the modern periodic law, the physical and chemical
properties of the elements are the periodic functions of their atomic
number.
The left and right corners of the table are assigned as sub-groups A and
the middle of the periodic table is assigned as subgroups B.
In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged in periods and
groups.
Periods: The horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table are called
periods or series. Elements in a period are arranged in increasing order
of their atomic numbers from left to right. There are 7 periods in the
modern periodic table, and each period is represented by an Arabic
numeral: 1, 2 . . . and 7.
Elements in the same period have the same number of shells.
Periods 1, 2, and 3 are called short periods while periods 4, 5,
and 6 are known as long periods.
Period 1 contains only 2 elements, hydrogen and helium. Period
2 and period 3 contain 8 elements each.
Period 4 and period 5 contain 18 elements each. Period 6 and
Period 7 have 32 elements each.
Period 7 elements are radioactive and/or artificial elements
Except for the first period, all periods start with an alkali metal
and ends with a noble gas
Table4.5. The number of elements in a given period and the
orbitals being filled.
The position of an element in a given period can be determined
by the number of shells occupied with its electrons.
Accordingly, the number of shell is equal to the number of
period to which the element belongs
Electron Configurations
The arrangement of electrons in an atom is known as the
electron configuration of the atom. Because atoms of different
elements have different numbers of electrons, a distinct
electronic configuration exists for the atoms of each element.
Like all systems in nature, electrons in atoms tend to assume
arrangements that have the lowest possible energies. The lowest
energy arrangement of the electrons in an atom is called the
ground state electron configuration. A few simple rules,
combined with the quantum number relationships discussed
below, allow us to determine these ground state electron
configurations. The quantum mechanical model is designated by
the following notation: a coefficient which shows the main
energy level, a letter that denotes the sublevel that an electron
occupies, and a superscript that shows the number of electrons
in that particular sublevel. The designation is explained as
follows
For example, the electron configuration of lithium ( 53Li) is:
1s22s1. This indicates that there are 2 electrons in the first s-
sublevel and 1 electron in the second s-sublevel.
The configuration for sodium (2311 Na) atom is: 1s22s22p63s1.
This indicate that there are 2 electrons in the first s-sublevel, 2
electrons in the second s-sublevel, 6 electrons in the second p-
sublevel, and 1 electron in the third s-sublevel.
Example 4.1Electronic configuration of 2311 Na= 1s22s22p63s1 (2,
8, 1). Sodium has 3 main shells. Hence, sodium is found in
period 3.
Example 4.2 By looking example above write the electron
configuration of 9F and 17Cl. What are the similarities and
differences in the electron configuration of F and Cl?
Electronic configuration of 9F= 1s22s22p5 (2, 7) and the
electronic configuration of 17Cl= 1s22s22p63s2 3p5 (2, 8, 7). Both
have the same number of electrons in their valence shell.
Fluorine has two shells whereas chlorine has three shells.
Groups: are the vertical columns of elements in the periodic
table. There are 18 columns or groups in the modern periodic
table.
Group numbers are usually designated with the numbers I to
VIII each followed by the letter A or B.
These are: IA . . . . . . . . . VIIIA Main groups (A groups)
IB . . . . . . . . . VIIIB Sub groups (B groups)
Elements in a given group have the same number of outermost
shell electrons. Elements in the same group have similar
chemical properties. For the main group elements the group
number equals the number of valence electrons.
[Link] 3517Cl= 1s22s22p63s23p5
(2, 8, 7). The number of valence electrons of chlorine is 7.
Hence chlorine is found in Group VIIA.
The assignment of all the electrons in an atom into specific
shells or orbitals (s, p, d, f ) is known as the element’s electronic
configuration. The elements can be arranged in the long form of
the periodic table based on the electronic configuration and
classified as s, p, d and f-block elements.
1. s- block elements: If the last electron enters into s-orbital,
the elements are called as s-block elements. The general
valence (outermost) shell electronic configuration is given
by ns1−2. That means [IG] ns1 for Alkali metals and [IG]
ns2 for Alkaline earth metals, where IG represents the inert
gas core.
2. p-block elements: If the last electron enters into the p-
orbital, the elements are called as p-block elements. The
general valence shell electronic configuration is ns 2np1- 6.
The p-block elements are placed in Group number IIIA to
VIIIA.
a. Valence shell electrons for s-block elements is equal to the
number of electrons in the s orbital having the highest principal
quantum number
b. Valence shell electrons for p-block elements are equal to the
number of electrons in the s and p orbitals having highest
principal quantum number.
c. The total number of valence shell electrons is equal to its
group number according to A and B convention.
d. He (ns2) is excluded from p-block in terms of electronic
configuration and it is better to consider it as s-block element.
But according to its chemical behavior it is justified to place it in
Group VIII
3.d-block elements: If the last electron enters into d orbital, the
elements are called d-block elements (except Thorium). The
general valence shell electronic configuration is:
ns0–2 (n–1)d1–10 or ns1–2(n–1)d1–10 (except for palladium)
Total valence shell electrons of d-block elements = Total
number of electrons in the outermost shell (ns orbital) and [(n –
1) d orbitals].
4. f-block elements: If the last electron of the elements enters
into f-orbital, they are considered as f-block elements.
The general valence shell electronic configuration is:
ns2 (n–1) d (0–1) (n–2) f(1–14)
Total valence shell electrons = Electrons present in ns, (n – 1) d
and (n – 2) orbitals or subshells
The representative elements (also called main group elements)
are the elements in Groups IA through VIIA, all of which have
incompletely filled s or p subshells of the highest principal
quantum number. With the exception of helium, the noble gases
(the Group VIIIA elements) all have a completely filled p
subshell. (The electron configurations are 1s2 for helium and
ns2np6 for the other noble gases, in which n is the principal
quantum number for the outermost shell).
Some main groups have traditional names and others as family
of the first member in the group which are often used in
textbooks. Group I – alkali metals, Group II – alkaline earth
metals, Group III - boron family, Group IV - carbon family,
Group V - nitrogen family, Group VI - oxygen family, Group
VII – halogens Group VIII – noble gases.
We see that all members of the Group IA alkali metals have
similar outer electron configurations; each has a noble gas core
and an ns1 configuration of the outer electron. Similarly, the
Group IIA alkaline earth metals have a noble gas core and an ns 2
configuration of the outer electrons. The outer electrons of an
atom, which are those involved in chemical bonding, are often
called the valence electrons. Having the same number of valence
electrons accounts for similarities in chemical behavior among
the elements within each of these groups. This observation holds
true also for the halogens (the Group VIIA elements), which
have outer electron configurations of ns2np5 and exhibit very
similar properties. We must be careful, however, in predicting
properties for Groups IIIA through VIA. For example, the
elements in Group IVA all have the same outer electron
configuration, ns2np4, but there is much variation in chemical
properties among these elements: Carbon is a nonmetal, silicon
and germanium are metalloids, and tin and lead are metals.
Periodic trends are patterns in elements on the periodic table.
Major trends are electronegativity, ionization energy, electron
affinity, atomic radius, and metallic character. The existence of
these trends is due to the similarity in atomic structure of the
elements in their groups or periods and because of the periodic
nature of elements.
For atoms linked together to form an extensive three-
dimensional network, atomic radius is simply one-half the
distance between the nuclei in two neighboring atoms
For elements that exist as simple diatomic molecules, the
atomic radius is one-half the distance between the nuclei of
the two atoms in a particular molecule
In studying the trends, bear in mind that the atomic radius
is determined to a large extent by the strength of the
attractionbetween the nucleus and the outer-shell electrons.
Within a group of elements we find that atomic radius
increases with increasing atomic number. For the alkali
metals in Group 1A, the outermost electron resides in the
ns orbital. Because orbital size increases with the
increasing principal quantum number n, the size of the
metal atoms increases from Li to Cs. We can apply the
same reasoning to the elements in other groups.
Ionization energy is the quantity of energy that an isolated,
gaseous atom in the ground electronic state must absorb to
discharge an electron, resulting in a cation.
This energy is usually expressed in kJ/mol, or the amount of
energy it takes for all the atoms in a mole to lose one electron
each.
When considering an initially neutral atom, expelling the first
electron will require less energy than expelling the second, the
second will require less energy than the third, and so on. Each
successive electron requires more energy to be released. This is
because after the first electron is lost, the overall charge of the
atom becomes positive, and the negative forces of the electron
will be attracted to the positive charge of the newly formed ion.
The more electrons that are lost, the more positive this ion will
be, the harder it is to separate the electrons from the atom. In
general, the further away an electron is from the nucleus, the
easier it is for it to be expelled. In other words, ionization energy
is a function of atomic radius; the larger the radius, the smaller
the amount of energy required to remove the electron from the
outer most orbital. For example, it would be far easier to take
electrons away from the larger element of Ca (Calcium) than it
would be from one where the electrons are held tighter to the
nucleus, like Cl (Chlorine). Since going from right to left on the
periodic table, the atomic radius increases, and the ionization
energy increases from left to right in the periods and up the
groups. Exceptions to this trend is observed for alkaline earth
metals (Group IIA) and nitrogen group elements (Group VA).
Typically, Group IIA elements have ionization energy greater
than Group IIIA elements and group VA elements have greater
ionization energy than group VIA elements. Groups IIA and VA
have completely and half-filled electronic configuration
respectively, thus, it requires more energy to remove an electron
from completely filled orbitals than incompletely filled orbitals.
Alkali metals (Group IA) have small ionization energies,
especially when compared to halogens or Group VIIIA (see
Table 4.6). In addition to the radius (distance between nucleus
and the electrons in outermost orbital), the number of electrons
between the nucleus and the electron(s) you’re looking at in the
outermost shell have an effect on the ionization energy as well.
This effect, where the full positive charge of the nucleus is not
felt by outer electrons due to the negative charges of inner
electrons partially canceling out the positive charge, is called
shielding. The more electrons shielding the outer electron shell
from the nucleus, the less energy required to expel an electron
from said atom. The higher the shielding effect the lower the
ionization energy (see Table 4.7). It is because of the shielding
effect that the ionization energy decreases from top to bottom
within a group. From this trend, Cesium is said to have the
lowest ionization energy and Fluorine is said to have the highest
ionization energy (with the exception of Helium and Neon).
Table 4.6 showing the increasing trend of ionization energy in
kJ/mol (exception in case of Boron) from left to right in the
periodic table
Table 4.7 showing decreasing trend of ionization energies
(kJ/mol) from top to bottom
(Cs is the exception in the first group)
Example:4.5(a) Which atom should have a smaller first
ionization energy: oxygen or sulfur? (b) Which atom should
have higher second ionization energy: lithium or beryllium?
Solution(a) Oxygen and sulfur are members of Group VIA.
They have the same valence electron configuration (ns 2np4), but
the 3p electron in sulfur is farther from the nucleus and
experiences less nuclear attraction than the 2p electron in
oxygen. Thus, we predict that sulfur should have a smaller first
ionization energy.
(b) The electron configurations of Li and Be are 1s 22s1 and
1s22s2, respectively. The second ionization energy is the
minimum energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous
unipositive ion in its ground state. For the second ionization
process we write
Because 1s electrons shield 2s electrons much more effectively
than they shield each other, we predict that it should be easier to
remove a 2s electron from Be+ than to remove a 1s electron from
Li+
4.4.3 Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is defined as the change in energy (in kJ/mole)
of a neutral atom (in the gaseous phase) when an electron is
added to the atom to form a negative ion.
In other words, the neutral atom’s likelihood of gaining an
electron.
Energy of an atom is defined when the atom loses or gains
energy through chemical reactions that cause the loss or gain of
electrons. A chemical reaction that releases energy is called an
exothermic reaction and a chemical reaction that absorbs energy
is called an endothermic reaction. Energy from an exothermic
reaction is negative, thus energy is given a negative sign;
whereas, energy from an endothermic reaction is positive and
energy is given a positive sign.
When an electron is added to a neutral atom (i.e., first electron
affinity) energy is released; thus, the first electron affinities are
negative. However, more energy is required to add an electron to
a negative ion (i.e., second electron affinity) which overwhelms
any the release of energy from the electron attachment process
and hence, second electron affinities are positive.
First Electron Affinity (negative energy because energy
released):
Second Electron Affinity (positive energy because energy
needed is more than gained):
Electron affinities are the negative ion equivalent, and their use
is almost always confined to elements in Groups VI and VII of
the Periodic Table. The first electron affinity is the energy
released when 1 mole of gaseous atoms each acquire an electron
to form 1 mole of gaseous -1 ions. It is the energy released (per
mole of X) when this change happens. First electron affinities
have negative values. For example, the first electron affinity of
chlorine is -349 KJ/ mol. By convention, the negative sign
shows a release of energy.
Example 4.6 Group IA Electron Affinities
This trend of lower electron affinities for metals is described by
the Group I metals:
Notice that electron affinity decreases down the group.
When nonmetals gain electrons, the energy change is usually
negative because they give off energy to form an anion
(exothermic process); thus, the electron affinity will be negative.
Nonmetals have a greater electron affinity than metals because
of their atomic structures: first, nonmetals have more valence
electrons than metals do, thus it is easier for the nonmetals to
gain electrons to fulfill a stable octet and secondly, the valence
electron shell is closer to the nucleus, thus it is harder to remove
an electron and it easier to attract electrons from other elements
(especially metals).
Thus, nonmetals have a higher electron affinity than metals,
meaning they are more likely to gain electrons than atoms with a
lower electron affinity.
Example 4.7 Group VIIA Electron Affinities For example,
nonmetals like the elements in the halogens series in Group
VIIA have a higher electron affinity than the metals. This trend
is described as below. Notice the negative sign for the electron
affinity which shows that energy is released.
Notice that electron affinity decreases down the group, but
increases across the period from left to right.
As the name suggests, electron affinity is the ability of an atom
to accept an electron. Unlike electronegativity, electron affinity
is a quantitative measurement of the energy change that occurs
when an electron is added to a neutral gas atom.
The more negative the electron affinity value, the higher
an atom’s affinity for electrons.
Table 4.8 Showing the increasing trend of electron affinities in
kJ/mol (exception in case of Beryllium and nitrogen) from left to
right in the periodic table.
Table 4.9 Showing decreasing trend of Electron affinities
(kJ/mol) from top to bottom
The tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair
of electrons towards itself is known as electronegativity. It is a
dimensionless property because it is only a tendency. It basically
indicates the net result of the tendencies of atoms in different
elements to attract the bond-forming electron pairs. We measure
electronegativity on several scales. The most commonly used
scale was designed by Linus Pauling. According to this scale,
fluorine is the most electronegative element with a value of 4.0
and cesium is the least electronegative element with a value of
0.7.
As we move across a period from left to right the nuclear charge
increases and the atomic size decreases, therefore the value of
electronegativity increases across a period in the modern
periodic table.
There is an increase in the atomic number as we move down the
group in the modern periodic table. The nuclear charge also
increases but the effect of the increase in nuclear charge is
overcome by the addition of one shell. Hence, the value of
electronegativity decreases as we move down the group. For
example, in the halogen group as we move down the group from
fluorine to astatine the electronegativity value decreases.
It is a general observation that metals show a lower value of
electronegativity as compared to the non-metals. Therefore,
metals are electropositive and non-metals are electronegative in
nature. The elements in period two differ in properties from their
respective group elements (for example Li is different from Na,
K, Rb, Cs and Fr) due to the small size and higher value of
electronegativity.
Elements requiring few electrons to complete their valence
shells and having few inner electron shells between nucleus and
valence electrons are the most electronegative. The most
electronegative of all elements is fluorine. Its electronegativity is
4.0. Metals have electronegativity less than 2.0. The least
electronegative elements are cesium (Cs) and francium (Fr),
with electronegativity values of 0.7. Therefore, Fluorine is the
most electronegative element and cesium is the least
electronegative element.
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