Module 5: Heredity

5.1: How does reproduction ensure the continuity of a species?

Asexual and sexual reproduction:
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

1 Parent 2 Parents

Genetically identical to the parent (Cloning) Offspring inherit different genetic traits from
both parents

Genetic variation can only occur from the random Increase genetic variation due to varying
mutation of DNA to its offspring combinations of genes in offspring

●​ Minimal energy expenditure ●​ Genetic variation

●​ Reproduction is at a faster rate ●​ Offspring are better able to adapt to
●​ NO gametes, meiosis and fertilisation environments
●​ Uses mitosis (cell division) ●​ Uses meiosis (sprem + egg = zygote)

●​ No genetic variation ●​ Takes longer

●​ Offspring may not be able to adapt to the ●​ Requires more energy
environment ●​ Requires a mate
●​ Haploid (n) → 23 chromosomes in cells ●​ Dipliod (2n) → 46 chromosome in cells

Parthenogenesis is where an organism doesn’t usually give birth asexually but can produce an offspring
without a mate, increasing the chance of survival (asexually)
Internal and external fertilisation (Animals):
Internal Advantages Successful fertilisation is more likely. Examples:
Fertilisation ●​ Humans
Higher offspring survival rates (parental care) ●​ Mammals
●​ Birds
Disavantages Fewer offspring are produced. ●​ Kangaroo

Much more energy is required to find a mat.

Risk of spreading sexually transmitted disease

External Advantages Large amounts of offspring are produced Examples:

Fertilisation ●​ Fish
Not much energy is required to find a mate ●​ Frogs
●​ Coral
Disavantages Many eggs will not be fertilised (wasted gametes)

Offspring survival decreases (little parental care)

Similarities:
●​ Male and female gametes are required
●​ Parental investments are indirectly proportional to the number of gametes produced
Reproduction in plants:
Vegetative propagation (Asexual):
Reproduction without seeds; instead, it uses vegetative parts of a plant to propagate new plants. Some
examples of these are runners (modified stems), rhizomes (modified systems), suckers (modified stems)
and apomixis.

1.​ Tubers - Store large amounts of food and are underground stems that act as storage organs to help
survive in unfavourable conditions and to regrow (e.g potatoes)
2.​ Bulbs - store food in fleshy, modified leaves and are used to support the plant’s growth in the next
season (e.g onions)
3.​ Runners - don’t store food, but can store a small amount. Runners are horizontal stems that grow
above ground and are mainly used for asexual reproduction (e.g. strawberries)

Advantages: It can produce the same plant over again and has a relatively quick speed to maturity.
Disadvantages: There is a small chance that new varieties will arise, and each plant has to be individually
propagated.

Pollination (Sexual):
When pollen from the anther of the stamen (male parts of the flower) is transferred to the stigma of the
carpel (female parts of the flower).
●​ Cross-pollination is where pollen from one flower is transferred to the stigma of another flower.
●​ Self-pollination is where pollen is carried from the anther to the stigma in the same flower.
○​ External agents carry pollen (wind, birds, etc)
●​ Ovules develop into seeds after fertilisation (pollen and egg cell meet), and the ovary will mature
into fruit and enclose seeds.

Advantages: Helps maintain genetic diversity

within a population
Disadvantages: High wastage of pollen grains,
which need to be produced to ensure successful
fertilisation.

Reproduction in fungi:
Budding (asexual):
When a small bud grows on the surface of the
organism, part of the nucleus splits and enters
the new bud. When the bud is big enough, it
breaks off the organism.
●​ Occurs in single-celled organisms and simple multicellular organisms (e.g hydra and yeast)

Sporulation or spores (asexual):

Sporulation occurs when the cells of an organism produce one or more spores inside its cell wall, which
are eventually released and carried to a favourable environment to grow into an adult organism.
Fragmentation (asexual):
The organism is split into fragments, which mature individually and are identical to the parent.
Reproduction in bacteria:
Binary fission (asexual):
●​ Cells increase in size until they divide into two new cells
●​ Firstly, the DNA of bacteria divides into two copies, then the cell splits into two daughter cells
with identical DNA to the parent cell.
●​ Examples of organisms that produce through binary fission include protozoans.

Reproduction in protists:
Binary fission (asexual):
●​ A single protist divides its nucleus and then divides itself into two organisms.
Budding (asexual):
Parent protozoan produces a bud, which is a daughter nucleus based on a replica of the DNA. Then there
is nuclear division and the separation of the parents’ cytoplasm. Over time, the daughter nucleus
undergoes further cell division via mitosis to grow and mature, which results in protists with identical
DNA.

Male Reproductive System:

Male reproductive system

Parts Function

Testes Production of sperm and male hormones such as testosterone

Scrotum Support and protect the testes, and maintain a slightly lower temperature for normal
development of sperm

Epididymis Temporarily stores sperm

Sperm Transportation of sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation

Ducts/Vas
deferens

Prostate gland Contains fluids that are rich in nutrients and enzymes to nourish the sperm and
activate them

Urethra Carries semen and urine outside the body

Penis Enters the vigina of the woman during sexual intercourse to deposit semen

Female Reproductive System:

Female reproductive system

Reproductive organ Function

Overy Creation of an ovum

 Fallopian Tube Channels ovum from ovary to uterus: the egg is fertilised here and transfers the
zygote to the uterus (implantation)

Uterus Zygote is developed here: Zygote → embryo → fetus → baby

Cervix Directs the sperm into the vagina

Vagina Produces fluid for lubrication during intercourse

Fertilisation:
Each parent contributes a haploid gamete to the offspring (haploid cells have half the regular number of
chromosomes, so when a haploid sperm cell combines with a haploid egg cell, the genetic material
combines, creating a diploid cell, which contains a full set of chromosomes.) (Zygote)
●​ Requires gametes to combine and form a zygote (fertilised egg)
●​ Gametogenesis (the gamete formation process) involves:
○​ Spermatogenesis (production of sperm)
○​ Oogenesis (mature egg cells)
●​ Hormones in males:
○​ Testosterone (produced in the testes and plays a part in spermatogenesis)
○​ Oestrogen (helps with the maturing of sperm cells)
●​ Fertilisation happens in the fallopian tube of a female’s body. A zygote will develop into a living
organism that has a mixed genotype from both parents:
●​ During fertilisation:
○​ The head of the sperm cell detached from the tail
○​ Sperm-egg species then goes down the female’s uterus
○​ The sperm cell activates the egg cell, resulting in the cell division of egg cell
development. The resulting product is a blastocyst (a structure formed in the early
development of mammals).
●​ Gametes must be from the same species for successful fertilisation.
Implantation:
Implantation gives the blastocyst access to nutrients and to develop into an embryo. After fertilisation, the
zygote grows by cell division into a clump of cells called a blastocyst, which contains an inner cell mass
that forms the embryo.
●​ The trophoblasts are the outer cells of the blastocyst, and they initiate the formation of the
placenta.
●​ The blastocyst then attaches to the endometrium, which is called implantation.
Implantation involves the trophoblast cells of the blastocyst secreting enzymes that break down some of
the endometrial cells, allowing it to enter the lining.
●​ Once the blastocyst has been implanted, the embryo releases hormones, such as human chorionic
gonadotropin (HCG), which sustains the corpus luteum, allowing it to continue secreting
progesterone and oestrogen.
○​ These TWO hormones are essential for maintaining the uterus lining to support
embryonic development.
●​ Without HCG, the corpus luteum breaks down, which triggers the endometrium to shed,
commonly called a period.

Stages in the ovarian and menstrual cycles:

Stage Period (days) Events

Menstruation 1-4 Uterine bleeding, accompanied by shedding of the endometrium

Pre-ovulation 5-12 Endometrial repair begins; development of ovarian follicle; uterine

lining rapidly thickens

Ovulation 13-15 Rupture of the mature follicle, releasing an egg

Secretion 16-20 Secretion of watery mucus by glands of endometrium, cervix and

uterine tubes; movement and breakdown of unfertilised egg;
development of corpus luteum

Pre-menstruation 21-28 Degeneration of the corpus luteum; deterioration of the

endometrium

Hormonal control of pregnancy:

First trimester of pregnancy:
●​ The embryonic hormone HCG rises rapidly, which maintains the corpus luteum and ensures the
uterus lining remains receptive
●​ The progesterone and oestrogen secreted by the corpus luteum interact with the hypothalamus and
anterior pituitary gland, causing a decrease in GnRH, FSH and LH, which prevents ovulation
(menstruation) from occurring.
●​ High levels of progesterone stimulate changes to the mother's body, including enlargement of the
uterus, formation of a mucus plug to seal the cervix, growth of the maternal parts of the placenta,
and breast growth.
Second trimester:
●​ Production of HCG declines, and the corpus luteum deteriorates
 ●​ The placenta takes over the role of producing oestrogen and progesterone, which are produced in
high levels to maintain the pregnancy
Third trimester:
●​ Increased oestrogen is released, which induces receptors to form on the uterus wall that can bind
the hormone oxytocin, which is critical to triggering and maintaining labour
●​ Oxytocin causes muscular contractions of the uterus, which push the bady towards the cervix and
vaginal opening.

Hormone Where it's produced Role

Progestrone Ovaries AND placenta Prohibits muscle contractions in the uterus, which
(once developed) would otherwise cause the body to reject an egg

Oestrogen Ovaries AND placenta Development and regulation of the female

(once developed) reproductive system has a positive feedback to the
pituitary gland to release LH (thicken the
endometrium)

Human chorionic The placenta and the HCG helps thicken the uterine lining to support the
gonadotropin (HCG) embryo developing fetus and signals the body to stop
menstruating

Follicle-stimulating Pituitary gland Stimulates the maturation of follicles (used during the
hormone (FSH) follicular phase)

Luteinising hormone Pituitary gland Stimulates ovulation and the development of the
(LH) corpus luteum

Gonadotropin Hypothalamus Stimulates the pituitary gland to make and secrete the
(GnRH) hormones luteinising hormone (LH) and
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which cause the
ovaries to make oestrogen and progesterone

Hormonal control of sperm production in males and reproduction in females:

Hormonal control of birth:
●​ Progestrone and oestrogen drop to cause the shedding of the endometrial lining
●​ Pressure from the baby’s head stimulates the production of the hormone oxytocin (which
stimulates contractions, pressure and softens the cervix)
●​ When the cervix is 10cm wide, oxytocin and adrenaline hormones start a final series of muscular
contractions
●​ Once the baby is delivered, the uterine contractions are controlled by oxytocin until the placenta
is pushed out and the uterus shrinks to normal size.
NOTE: The impact of the scientific knowledge of inheritance has enabled people to develop organisms
with desirable characteristics and traits, such as producing increased quantities of produce and higher
yields.
Selective breeding:
Humans selectively breed organisms to develop desirable characteristics by choosing which organisms
will sexually reproduce to have offspring.
Advantages: The production of animals with desirable traits i.e more yield, looks etc
Disadvantages: Decreases the gene pool, creating less genetic diversity, genetically modified organisms
may compete with natural populations

Artificial selection:
The process of collecting sperm cells from a male animal with desirable characteristics and inserting them
into the uterus of a female, impregnating them, and producing large numbers of offspring with desirable
characteristics.
Advantages: Improving the cross-breeding of males and females with desirable traits
Disadvantages: Requires expensive equipment and well-trained operators

Artificial insemination (IUI):

The process involves artificially transferring sprem into the vagina of a female. It allows spefic traits to be
pased onto my many offspring and does not depend on waiting for animals to copulate
●​ It is important to understand reproductive cycles of animals and how to store sprems

Artificial pollination:
Taking pollen from the stigma of one selected flower and dusting it onto the anther of another selected
parent. This gives control over which plants become parents of the next generation.
Advantages: The production of animals with desirable traits
Disadvantages: Decreases the gene pool, creating less genetic diversity

In-vitro fertilisation (IVF):

A reproductive technique to increase the likelihood of developing an offspring for those with fertility
problems.
1.​ Removal of oocytes from the female ovaries.
2.​ Eggs are placed in a petri dish to be fertilised with a sprem cells
3.​ Petri dishes are placed inside an incubator for the development of the zygote to an embryo and
eventually a blastocyst
4.​ Blastocyst is then transferred into the woman’s uterus.
Advantages: People with fertilisation problems e.g low sprem count or ovarian issue

Cloning:​
Type of asexual reproduction that creates offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.
●​ Plant cloning: A section of the mother plant containing a stem cell is cut and planted in the same
environment, which develops the same characteristics.
 ●​ Animal cloning: genetic material from an unfertilised egg is removed and replaced with complete
genetic material from an animal which is to be cloned; the egg is then implanted into a surrogate
mother who gives birth to a clone. (dolly the sheep)

Hybradiation:
The term hybridisation means the crossbreeding of two genetically non-identical individuals. This may
mean crossing parents of the same species, who show genetic variation.
●​ Cross-breeding or hybridisation is commonly used in horticulture and agriculture to improve the
quality of the plants and animals being grown or raised.
Advantages: It increases the features of each parent, resulting in hybrid vigour. genetic variety, desirable
characteristics
Disadvantages: Expensive, less resistance to diseases, offspring can be infertile

5.2: How important is it for genetic material to be

replicated exactly?
DNA Structure (Watson and Crick DNA Model):
The DNA molecule is made of two strands of nucleotides,
which consist of phosphate, sugar, and nitrogenous bases.
There are 4 types of nitrogenous bases, each named after
the base that it carries: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and
Cytosine.

The two strands are held together by weak hydrogen

bonds in the centre, which form a ‘ladder’ in spirals
known as a ‘double helix’ and allow chains of DNA to be
unzipped in replication. DNA is found in chromosomes
inside eukaryotic cells (chromosomes contain DNA and
proteins)

Chromosomes:
For a cell to divide, chromosomes must replicate. A
chromosome with one copy of DNA is made up of a
chromatid.
●​ Replicated chromosomes with two sets of DNAs are made up of two chromatids joined at the
chromatid joined at the centromere. Human cells normally contain 23 pairs of chromosomes for a
total of 46 (one of each pair comes from each parent).

DNA Replication:
This process forms two identical strands of DNA from one.
Step 1 - Unzipping:
●​ Topoisomerase (enzyme) relaxes DNA from its coiled structure
●​ DNA helicase (requiring ATP to move) unzips the double helix into two single strands by
breaking the hydrogen bonds of A-T and G-C pairs
 ●​ Single-stranded DNA-binding protein (SSB) prevents DNA from becoming a double helix again
Steps 2 - Replication Fork:
●​ DNA helicase forms a fork-like structure. Strands are antiparallel to each other, signified by a 5’
and 3’ end.
●​ One strand travels in 3’ to 5’ direction (leading strand) and one in 5’ to 3’ direction (lagging
strand)
Step 3 - Primer Binding:
●​ Primers (made by the enzyme Primase) bind to the 3’ end of the strand and act as a starting point
for replication.
Step 4 - DNA Synthesis:
●​ DNA polymerase (enzyme) adds free nucleotides (found in the nucleus) to continue the synthesis
of the new strand
●​ On the leading strand, DNA is synthesised in the same direction as the replication fork.
●​ On the lagging strand, DNA is synthesised in the opposite direction and is a much harder process.
Step 5 - DNA Synthesis on the lagging strand and Okazaki fragments:
●​ The lagging strand is synthesised in short, separated segments.
●​ RNA primers (new strands) are constantly being formed on the lagging strand for the polymerase
to start at that point.
●​ DNA polymerase adds Okazaki Fragments (pieces of DNA) to the strand between the primers.
Step 6 - Reformation of the double helix:
●​ Ligase (enzyme) joins the two strands together of each new double helix and reconnects the
hydrogen bonds of base pairs.

Mitosis:
The process that creates identical copies of somatic cells through cell division. It is important for the
growth and repair of eukaryotic organisms and has stages which can be remembered by ‘Idiot Pass Me
Another Taco’.
Interphase:
●​ DNA is replicated and is in the form of chromatin, and new organelles are made through
synthesis, and the cell increases in size.
Prophase (longest phase in mitosis):
●​ Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and the centrioles separate, whilst spindles form, and
the nuclear membrane disappears.
Metaphase (the shortest phase of mitosis):
 ●​ The chromosomes line up at the middle of the cell, and the spindle fibres attach to chromosomes
at the centromere.
Anaphase:
●​ These spindle fibres pull the chromosomes apart, causing half of each chromosome (chromatid)
to move towards the centrioles.
Telophase:
●​ 2 nuclei form, and the DNA uncoils (appearing as chromatin again). In animal cells, the cell
membrane pinches in to form 2 daughter cells. In plant cells, the cell wall forms between two
nuclei to form 2 daughter cells.
Cytokinesis:
●​ Division of cytoplasm creates 2 new cells (begins in telophase). This can be seen in animals by
looking for a cleavage furrow or in plants by looking for a cell plate.

Meiosis:​
Process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the original number of
chromosomes, which are used in gametes, as it maintains a constant chromosome number from one
generation to the next. Meiosis occurs in two stages (Meiosis I and Meiosis II), which have the same
stages as mitosis.

Meiosis I (Interphase, Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Cytokinesis)

Chromosomes duplicate (there would still be 1 chromosome, they don’t split in half) and then they line up
in pairs, then, crossing over occurs (which increases genetic variety), and random assortment in
Metaphase I (also increases genetic variety), this means the chromosomes have genes from both parents.
Then the pairs of chromosomes separate, halving the chromosome number in gametes.

Meiosis II (Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase

II, Cytokinesis)
The centromere divides, causing the chromatids to separate
from each other. The nuclear membrane forms around each set
of chromosomes. Cytokinesis follows, resulting in four
daughter cells, each with half the original chromosome
number.
Cell replication allows favourable characteristics to be passed
onto offspring, allowing a higher chance for survival for that
offspring. Crossing-over and random assortment in Meiosis I
increase genetic variation in offspring and species population,
and can also reduce the chance of an extinction event in case
an external factor affects the environment.
5.3: Why is polypeptide synthesis important?
Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes (DNA):
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Location of DNA Nucleoid (in the cytoplasm) Nucleus. Mitochondria, chloroplasts

 Shape of DNA Circular chromosome Linear chromosomes in the nucleus can be
circular in chloroplasts and mitochondria

Protein synthesis Transcription and translation occur Transcription (which occurs in the nucleus)
simultaneously in the cytoplasm and translation (which occurs in the
cytoplasm) do not occur simultaneously

Alleles per gene 1 allele per gene 2 alleles per gene

Presence of Contains plasmids (smaller rings of Usually not, but some may contain
Plasmids DNA) plasmids (e.g. fungi)

Chemicals involved in protein synthesis:

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

●​ Double Stranded ●​ Single stranded

○​ Double helix shape ●​ Ribose sugar (sugar with oxygen)
●​ Have a deoxyribose sugar (sugar without ●​ Adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil
oxygen) ●​ Nucleic bases are exposed due to the lack
●​ Adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine of hydrogen bonding
●​ Nucleic bases are not exposed due to the
hydrogen bonding

Transcription and Translation:

●​ Transcription is when a gene’s DNA sequence is copied to make an RNA molecule.
●​ Translation is a process where mRNA is decoded to build a protein that contains a specific series
of amino acids

Steps of polypeptide synthesis:

Transcription (in the nucleus)
Initiation:
●​ RNA polymerase binds and unwinds the short sequence of DNA
Elongation:
●​ RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to growing mRNA strands and synthesises mRNA starting
from 5’ to 3’, but RNA polymerase reads DNA strands in 3’ to 5’ direction.
●​ Template strands are used to synthesise DNA, and the coding strands are not used, but the
sequence matches up with the mRNA
Termination:
●​ RNA polymerase reaches the terminator, and mRNA is
released from the DNA template strands
Pre-mRNA/RNA splicing:
●​ After termination in transcription, a pre-mRNA
(messenger RNA) strand is formed.
●​ Pre-mRNA consists of introns (non-coding sections) and
exons (coding sections).
 ●​ Introns are removed, and exons are “spliced” or joined together.
●​ mRNA is transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasma for the to attach ribosomes for
translation.

Translation (in the ribosome):

Initiation:
●​ The small subunit binds to a starting codon AUG (a codon is a sequence of 3 nucleotides).
Codons represent a single amino acid.
●​ tRNA (transfer RNA) carrying the amino acid Met attaches to the “P site” (holds polypeptide
chain). A large subunit is then placed on top.

Elongation:
●​ tRNA for the second amino acid binds to mRNA within the second ribosomal binding site, the “A
site”. A covalent bond is formed between the two amino acids (e.g. Met - *amino acid*)
●​ As the process continues and the ribosome moves down the mRNA, the tRNA moves to the “E
site” (exit site for tRNA) and loses its amino acid.

Termination:
●​ A stop codon is read (release factor), tRNA and mRNA are released from the ribosome, and the
polypeptide is folded into a 3-dimensional structure.
Importance of mRNA and tRNA:
mRNA
●​ Single-stranded, not twisted, and is found in the nucleus and cytoplasm
●​ Part of transcription involves the creation of an mRNA strand with nucleotides complementary to
the nucleotides on the coding strand.
●​ mRNA is important in ensuring that an organism’s genes code for the correct mRNA codon.
●​ This allows tRNA molecules with anticodons that correct the amino acid that corresponds to the
mRNA codon to form the correct sequence.
tRNA
●​ Found in the cytoplasm that carry animo acids to build new proteins (has a folded shape)
●​ Ensures the anticodon specifies and binds to the correct amino acid, which ensures the
polypeptide chain has the correct amino acid sequencing, allowing the protein folding process to
occur correctly.
●​ If this is not done correctly protein may have a different shape (primary structure), not suitable for
the function where it is needed.

Importance of polypeptide synthesis:

Create proteins that carry out different functions in our body, such as enzymes. Proteins control
characteristics of all organisms – gene expression is hence a part of polypeptide synthesis.

Genotype, Phenotype and the Environment:

A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a polypeptide and can come in different variants (alleles).
Genotype is an organism's complete set of genetic material. Phenotype is an organism’s observable traits,
such as physical appearance, physiology, and behaviour. Although the phenotype is a physical expression
of an organism’s genes, the genotype doesn't determine the phenotype due to significant environmental
influences. Skin colour is an example of both genes and environmental influence on phenotype:
●​ Although an individual’s amount of melanin can be identified from their genotype, their genes
can also be stimulated to produce more melanin in response to ultraviolet rays in sunlight. This is
done to protect the skin from UV radiation.

Enzymes:
Enzymes (proteins) are biological catalysts where most metabolic reactions can and will only occur if
there is an enzyme present to lower the activation energy.
 ●​ Some send intracellular signals
●​ Transmembrane proteins alter the permeability of the cell membrane
●​ Antibodies
●​ Directly involved in building, structure and mechanics of the whole organism
Proteins determine the phenotype (physical characteristic) BUT are also influenced by the environment

Function of protein:
Proteins are 3D structures made of chains of amino acids, called polypeptides. They are determined by
our genotype and have important functions in our body. Proteins coordinate and control bodily functions:
●​ Signalling proteins (such as insulin) allow cells to communicate with each other.)
●​ Enzymes (proteins that speed up chemical reactions in cells)
●​ Structural (keratin)
●​ Defensive (antibodies)
●​ Storage (ferritin)
●​ Transport (haemoglobin)
●​ Sensory (opsins)
●​ Motor (actin)
Protein Structure:
Primary structure Secondary structure Tertiary structure Quaternary structure

The amino acid The amino acid The amino acid Made up of single
sequences sequence with folding sequence with polypeptide chains and
as a result of hydrogen secondary folding, have three levels of
bonding (form between making it structure. (This level
the carbonyl O of one 3-dimensional, is does not occur as most
amino acid and the caused by interactions proteins stop at the 3rd)
amino H of another. between the
polypeptide and its E.g Hemoglobin
immediate
environment.

5.4: How can genetic similarities and differences within and between species be compared?
(rest in the book)