STRUCTURAL DESIGN 1 (REINFORCED CONCRETE)

INTRODUCTION
CONCRETE
Concrete is a mixture of cement (9 – 15%), water (15 – 16%), fine aggregate (sand, 25 – 30%), coarse aggregate
(gravel or crushed rocks, 30 – 45%), air (2 – 6%) and chemical admixtures in which the cement and water have
hardened by a chemical reaction – hydration – to bind the nearly (non reacting) aggregate.

CEMENT
Portland cements are hydraulic cements, meaning they react and harden chemically with the addition of water. Cement
contains limestone, clay, rock and iron ore blended and heated to 1200 to 1500 C°. The resulting product "clinker" is
then ground to the consistency of powder. Gypsum is added to control setting time.

Fine Aggregate
Normally called sand, this component can be natural sand or crushed stone, and represents particles that pass through
a No. 4 sieve (about 6mm in size). It generally accounts for 30%-35% of the mixture.

Coarse Aggregate
May be either gravel or crushed stone. Makes up 40%-45% of the mixture, comprised of particles greater than 6mm.

Water
Water used in mixing concrete shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, organic
materials, or other substances that may be deleterious to concrete and reinforcement. Mixing water for prestressed
concrete or for concrete that will contain aluminum embedments, including that portion of mixing water contributed in
the form of free moisture on aggregates, shall not contain deleterious amount of chloride ion. Non-potable (non-
drinkable) water shall not be used in concrete unless the following is satisfied:
a) Selection of concrete proportions shall be based on concrete mixes using water from the same source.
b) Mortar test cubes made with non-potable mixing water shall have 7-day and 28-day strengths equal to at
least 90 percent of strengths of similar specimens made with potable water.

Chemical Admixtures
Materials added to alter the properties of concrete including:
 Air entraining admixtures: add microscopic air bubbles to the concrete, enhancing its resistance to
freeze/thaw cycles and makes the concrete easier to finish.
 Set accelerators: speed the set-time of the mixture, enabling finishing operations to begin sooner, useful
during cold weather pours.
 Set retarders: have the opposite effect, slowing the set and enabling delivery to distant sites and finishing
during hot weather.
 Water reducers: are used to reduce the amount of water required to produce a given slump. They also
provide a ball bearing effect, making the concrete easier to finish, and produce better cement hydration.
By reducing the amount of water required, cement amounts can be reduced because concrete strength
is directly related to the water/cement ratio.
 The workability of concrete as ‘the property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar determines the ease and
homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished. A concrete is said to be workable if:
 It can be handled without segregation
 It can be placed without loss of homogeneity
 It can be compacted with specified effort
 It can be finished easily

REINFORCED CONCRETE
As with most rocklike mass, concrete has a very high compressive strength but have very low tensile strength. As a
structural member, concrete can be made to carry tensile stresses (as in beam in flexure). In this regard, it is necessary
to provide steel bars to provide the tensile strength lacking in concrete. The composite member is called reinforced
concrete.

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Main uses of concrete
Concrete is the second most widely used substance after water and over six milliard tons of concrete is produced each
year. Concrete is specific to different applications like new construction, repair, rehabilitation and retrofitting. Concrete
building components in different sizes and shapes include wall panels, doorsills, beams, pillars and more. Post-
tensioned slabs are a preferred method for industrial, commercial and residential floor slab construction. It makes
sense to classify the uses of concrete on the basis of where and how it is produced, together with its method of
application, since these have different requirements and properties.

Some advantages of concrete are given below in brief:

 Concrete is economical when ingredients are readily available in most of the places.
 Concrete’s long life and relatively low maintenance requirements increase its economic benefits.
 Concrete is not as likely to rot, corrode, or decay as other building materials.
 Concrete has the ability to be molded or cast into almost any desired shape and casting of concrete and can
be manufactured to desired strength.
 Building of the molds (framework) and casting can occur on the work-site, which reduces cost.
 Concrete is a non-combustible material, which makes it fire-safe and able to withstand high temperatures
(Cracking starts at 550°C, popouts over chert or quartz aggregate particles at 600 °C and spalling at 800
°C) [6].
 Concrete is resistant to wind, water, rodents, and insects. Hence, concrete is often used for storm shelters.
 Maintenance cost of concrete is almost negligible.
 As a sound proofing material lightweight concrete could be used.

Limitations of concrete:
 Compared to other binding materials, the tensile strength of concrete is relatively low.
 Concrete is less ductile.
 The weight of concrete is high compared to its strength (low strength-to-weight ratio).
 Concrete may contain soluble salts. Soluble salts cause efflorescence.
 Concrete is susceptible to cracking.

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Unlike steel and other materials, concrete has no definite modulus of elasticity. Its value is dependent on the
characteristics of cement and aggregates used, age of concrete and strengths. Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete:
𝐸 = 𝑤 . 0.043 𝑓 in MPa for concrete wc between 1500 to 2500 kg/m3 (lightweight concrete)
𝐸 = 4700 𝑓 for normal weight concrete
Where:
𝑓 = 28-day compressive strength of concrete in MPa
𝑤 = the unit weight of concrete in kg/m3
𝐸 = 200,000 MPa modulus of elasticity for nonprestressed reinforcement

DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT

Standard Hooks & Minimum Bend Diameters

Standard hooks, Seismic Hooks, Crossties, and Minimum Inside Bend Diameters shall be in accordance with Section
425.3 NSCP 2015.A standard hook for rebars if required shall be either of the following
A) A semi-circular turn plus an extension of greater between 4 bar diameter and 65 mm at the free end of
bar.
B) A 90-degree turn plus an extension of at least 12 bars diameter at the free end of the bar.
Minimum diameter of bend measured on the inside of the bar shall be as follow:
10 mm Ø to 16 mm Ø - 4 bar diameter
20 mm Ø to 25 mm Ø - 6 bar diameter

BUNDLED BARS
Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall be limited to four in any one bundle. Bundled
bars shall shall be enclosed within transverse reinforcement. Bundled bars in compression members shall be enclosed
by transverse reinforcement at least 12mm ø in size. Bars larger than 36 mm ø shall not be bundled in beams. Individual
bars within a bundle terminated within the span of flexural members shall terminate at different points with at least 40db
stagger.

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Diameter of single bar equivalent to bundled bars according to NSCP to be useful for spacing limitation and concrete
cover.

𝜋 𝜋
3 ∙ (25𝑚𝑚) = ∙𝐷
4 4

CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT

Cast-in-place Concrete (Nonprestressed)
The following minimum concrete cover shall be provided for reinforcements:

LOADS (Section 405)

The most important and most critical task of an engineer is the determination of the loads that can be applied to a
structure during its life, and the worst possible combination of these loads that might occur simultaneously. Loads on
a structure may be classified as dead loads or live loads.
 DEAD LOADS
Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position. This consists mainly of the weight
of the structure and other permanent attachments to the frame.

 LIVE LOAD
Live loads are loads that may change in magnitude and position. Live loads that move under their own
power are called moving loads. Other live loads are those that caused by wind, rain, earthquakes, soils, and
temperature changes. Wind and earthquake loads are called lateral loads.

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 Arrangement of Live Loads:
Live loads may be applied only to the floor or roof under consideration and as stated in Section 406.4 NSCP
2015. (Read the content of the section)

STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS

Load Factors and Combinations

Required strength, 𝑈, shall be at least equal to the effects of factored loads on the Table 405.3.1
with exceptions and addition by Section 405.3.3 through 405.3.12. (Read)

Design strength of a member and its joints and connections, in terms of moment, axial force, shear, torsion,
and bearing, shall be taken as the nominal strength 𝑆 , multiplied by the applicable strength reduction factor
∅. (Section 421.2)

Table 421.2.1 Strength Reduction Factors, ϕ

Action or Structural Element ∅ Exceptions

A Moment, axial force, or combined moment and 0.65 to 0.90 in Near ends of
axial force accordance with pretensioned members
Section 421.2.2 where strands are not
fully developed, ∅ shall
eb in accordance w/
Section 421.2.3
B Shear 0.75 Additional
requirements are given
in Section 421.2.4 for
structures designed t
resist earthquake
effects.
C Torsion 0.75 -
D Bearing 0.65 -
E Post-tensioned anchorage zones 0.85 -
F Bracket and corbels 0.75 -
G Struts, ties, nodal zones, and bearing areas 0.75 -
designed in accordance with strut-and-tie
method in Section 423
H Components of connections of precast 0.90 -
members controlled by yielding of steel
elements in tension.
I Plain concrete elements 0.60 -
J Anchors in concrete elements 0.45 to 0.75 in -
accordance with
Section 417

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