Power Distribution Engineering

Introduction
Prof. Dr. Abdul Khaliq
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Sir Syed CASE Institute of Technology
ak@[Link]

Power Distribution Engineering ‐ Spring 2025

• Instructor
• Prof. Dr. Abdul Khaliq
• Email: ak@[Link].

• Class Times:
• Saturdays 09:00 am– 11:30 am

• Office Hours:
• Saturdays 11:30 am– 12:30 pm

• If any of this time doesn’t suit your schedule then send me an email for an
appointment indicating times slot that suit you the best.
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Textbook
• Electric Power Distribution Engineering,
4th Edition by Turan Gonen, Chee-Wooi
Ten and Ali Mehrizi-Sani, CRC Press,
2024

Textbook
• Distribution System Modeling and
Analysis, 4th Edition, by William H.
Kersting, CRC Press

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Textbook
• Electric Power Distribution Handbook,
Second Edition, Thomas Allen Short, CRC
Press, 2014

Grading Policy

• Assignments 10%
• Simulations / Class Project /Term Paper 20%
• Midterm Examination 30%
• Comprehensive Final 40%

• Home work:
• Assigned Frequently
• Late submissions will be penalized.

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• Acknowledgement: The slides are developed based in part on Distribution
System Modeling and Analysis, 4th edition, William H. Kersting, CRC
Press, 2017 and Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd edition, T. A.
Short, CRC Press, 2014.

The Electric Power System

• Three Main Building Blocks:

• Generation: Produces electrical energy (e.g., power plants).
• Transmission: Transports high-voltage power over long
distances.
• Distribution: Delivers power to end consumers.

• Capital Expenditure Breakdown:

• Generation: ~40% of total costs.
• Transmission: ~20% of total costs.
• Distribution: ~40% of total costs.
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The Electric Power System
• Distribution Systems:
• Closest subsystem to consumers.
• Begins at a distribution substation, which steps down voltage from
transmission levels (typically 69 kV to 765 kV) to primary distribution levels
(4.16 kV to 34.5 kV).
• Substations have a power handling capacity of 5 MVA to 25 MVA and feed 2
to 8 or more three-phase primary feeders.

• Power Delivery to Consumers:

• Laterals branch off primary feeders.
• Distribution transformers further step down voltage to 600 V or less for end-
use.
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Electricity Infrastructure

T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. : CRC, 2014.

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The Electric Power System
• Secondary lines feed residential loads, while
commercial and industrial loads may be fed
directly from the primary level or via
secondary distribution.
• Most distribution systems are overhead due
to cost considerations, but underground
systems are becoming popular due to
aesthetics and higher reliability.

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Overview of electricity infrastructure and role of electric power

distribution
• At a distribution substation, a substation
transformer takes the incoming transmission-level
voltage (35 to 230 kV) and steps it down to
several distribution primary circuits, which fan
out from the substation.
• Primary distribution lines are “medium-voltage”
circuits, normally thought of as 600 V to 35 kV.
• Close to end users, a distribution transformer
takes the primary distribution voltage and steps it
down to a low-voltage secondary circuit
(commonly 120/240/380 V).
• From the distribution transformer, the secondary
distribution circuits connect to the end user.

T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.

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What is Electric Power Distribution?
• Electric power distribution is the
portion of the power delivery
infrastructure that takes the
electricity from the highly
meshed, high-voltage
transmission circuits and delivers
it to customers.

• Some also think of distribution as

anything that is radial or anything
that is below 35 kV. [Link]

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Comparison of Distribution and Transmission

Systems

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Layout of a Typical Distribution System

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Distribution System Devices

Distribution systems have a variety of devices from the substation to customer service entrances,
including:
1. Substation Devices
Compensating Protection Control and
Transformers Switchgear
devices equipment monitoring

2. Primary System Components

Feeders and Compensating Protection Distribution
Laterals Switches
Devices Equipment Transformers

3. Secondary System Components

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Substation Devices

• Distribution substations are the link between the transmission

system and the distribution system.
• Distribution substations can be located on the periphery or inside
cities, and may be part of a large transmission substation.
• Modern distribution substations are typically gas-insulated, with
sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) being the most common gas used.
• However, there are some environmental concerns associated with
SF6, leading researchers to look for alternatives.

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Substation Devices

ECpE Department
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1.1 Power Transformers
• Power transformers receive power from the transmission system and reduce
the voltage for distribution to consumers.
• These transformers have multiple power ratings, such as 15/20/25 MVA
OA/FA/FOA, which indicate the transformer will handle:
• up to 15 MVA with cooling provided by convective flow of oil through fins
(OA),
• up to 20 MVA with additional cooling provided by fans circulating air
through fins (FA),
• and up to 25 MVA with cooling aided by forced air as well as forced oil
circulation (FOA).
• Power transformers typically have a load tap changer (LTC) on the secondary
side to adjust the low-voltage side voltage based on system load.

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1.2 Switchgear
• Switchgear refers to devices used to open or close electrical paths in a
distribution system.
• The most important part of these devices is the circuit breaker, which opens the
electrical path under fault conditions.
• Circuit breakers can use air, oil, vacuum, or gas as the media for interruption.
• High-voltage circuit breakers are typically SF6 -based, while circuit breakers
in the 15 kV class often use vacuum-based interruption mechanisms.
• Load break switches are used to interrupt a circuit, but their capacity is limited
to the maximum expected load on the circuit and cannot interrupt a circuit
under fault conditions.
• Disconnect switches are manual devices used to isolate a circuit or component
that has already been de-energized.

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1.3 Compensating Device
• Compensating devices are used in a distribution system to adjust the voltage or
reactive power flow. These devices include:
• Regulators: These devices are autotransformers that can change the output
voltage by moving the tap up or down.
• Capacitors: These devices provide reactive power and can be fixed or switched.
Switch capacitors can be turned on to provide reactive power in response to
voltage, reactive power flow, or temperature, or they can have a fixed time-
based switching schedule.
• Reactors: These devices can be installed in substations to absorb reactive
power. They are not commonly used in distribution substations, but may be
used in transmission substations to compensate for the reactive power of high-
voltage transmission lines under light load conditions.

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1.4 Protection Equipment

• Protection equipment in a distribution system is designed to respond to abnormal conditions
such as high current due to faults and high voltage caused by circuit switching or lightning.
These types of equipment include:
• Relays: Inverse time overcurrent and instantaneous relays are the most common types of relays
used in distribution systems. They monitor the current on distribution feeders emanating from
the substation and send trip signals to associated circuit breakers to trip if the current exceeds a
certain threshold.
• Fuses: High-voltage fuses are sometimes used on the high-voltage side of power transformers to
protect them from faults.
• Surge arresters: These devices limit voltage on equipment by discharging or bypassing surge
current created by switching or lightning.
• Static wires: These wires, which are located at the top of poles bringing an overhead
transmission line into the substation or an overhead distribution line going out of the substation,
protect substation equipment during lightning storms by diverting lightning surges to the
ground.

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 1.5 Control and Monitoring Devices
• Current transformers (CTs) reduce the current flowing on lines to lower values
for meters and relays.
• Voltage transformers (VTs) or potential transformers (PTs) reduce high voltage
to a lower value for metering and protection.
• Capacitive voltage transformers (CVTs) use the capacitive principle to reduce
voltage.
• Substations have transducers to measure quantities such as ambient
temperature, oil temperatures of transformers, and dissolved gases in
transformer oil.
• Modern substations use cyber technology, including computers and
communication links (e.g. microwave, fiber optics, radio) and remote terminal
units (RTUs) to collect and convey information to the supervisory control and
data acquisition (SCADA) system in the control room.
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2. Primary System Components

• The primary distribution system consists of feeders that
extend from the substation to distribution transformers.
• Figure on the right shows an example of an overhead
primary distribution feeder along a city street.
• These feeders can have different configurations and
conductor types and have associated devices for protection
and control.

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2.1 Feeders and Laterals
• Feeders and laterals in a distribution system can be overhead or underground.
• Overhead feeders have bare conductors mounted on poles and can use copper,
aluminum, or aluminum conductor steel reinforced (ACSR) conductors.
• ACSR conductors are the most commonly used bare wires for overhead
distribution feeders.
• Underground feeders use insulated cables with copper or aluminum conductors
and are insulated with ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) or cross-linked
polyethylene (XLPE) polymeric insulation.
• Tree wires are another option for overhead feeders and are made of copper or
aluminum conductors coated with insulation. They are used in areas with dense
vegetation and high likelihood of contact with trees.

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2.2 Switches
• Primary feeders in a distribution system are typically three-phase and have
different types of switches installed for operating flexibility.
• Manual switches are used to isolate a part of the feeder for maintenance and can
only operate on a de-energized feeder.
• Sectionalizing switches or sectionalizers isolate parts of a feeder under fault
conditions and do not have fault-clearing capabilities, but operate in
conjunction with reclosers, which do have fault-clearing capabilities.
• Sectionalizers have a counting mechanism to count the number of times the recloser has
operated, and after a predetermined number of operations, they open when the recloser is
open to disconnect the downstream part of the feeder.
• Advanced sectionalizing switches with communication capabilities are being deployed in
automated systems to precisely locate faults and isolate the faulted part from the rest of the
system.

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2.2 Switches

• Three-phase main feeders also have a switch at the end, called a tie
switch, which is normally open and can be manual or automated.
• In modern systems, tie switches are often automated to provide higher
flexibility for system reconfiguration.

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2.3 Compensating Devices

• Capacitors: Installed to inject reactive power and maintain proper

voltage on feeders under changing load conditions.
• Capacitors can be switched based on local control using time, temperature,
voltage, reactive power, or a combination of them.
• Capacitors can also be switched in coordination with other devices in the
system.
• Voltage regulators: They are like autotransformers and is used on
long feeders to boost voltage under heavy load conditions.

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2.4 Protection Equipment
• Fuses: Most common protection equipment, used on lateral branches and main
feeders, inexpensive but must be manually replaced.
• Every lateral branching off the main feeders has a fuse to protect it.
• The main feeder can have fuses in certain situations.
• They are also used to protect distribution transformers.
• Fuses are very inexpensive and have provided reliable protection for over a
century.
• A disadvantage with them is that they must be manually replaced.
• One can argue that they should be replaced by automated protective devices,
however, the cost advantage they offer outweighs any benefits an automated
protective device would provide. Hence, they will continue to be used for
protection of downstream portions of distribution systems.

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2.4 Protection Equipment

• Reclosers:
• like circuit breakers and have fault-clearing capabilities,
• unlike circuit breakers, which depend on separate relays to initiate operation
during faults, reclosers have their own fault-detection mechanism,
• are smaller in size and are mounted on top of poles in overhead feeders and
are mounted on poles.
• have reclosing feature which allows them to reclose a selected number of
times before locking out.
• Since many faults in distribution systems are temporary, this feature permits
fuse saving for such faults.
• Surge arresters: Protects against lightning and switching surges.
• Static lines: Protects against voltage transients.
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2.5 Control and Monitoring Devices

• Emerging distribution systems with automation have more control

and monitoring devices, including CTs, VTs, transducers, and RTUs.
• Automated distribution systems have an overly communication
network for communication between devices and the control center.
• These devices provide real-time data for optimal operating decisions
at the control center.

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2.6 Distribution Transformers

• Located at the end of the primary distribution system.

• Reduce voltage to utilization level for distribution to customers.
• Pole-mounted for overhead systems, pad-mounted for underground
systems.
• Single phase for residential customers, three phase for commercial
and industrial customers, depending on the size of the load.
• Single-phase transformer typically feeds 1-8 residential customers
through the secondary part of the system.

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Types of Primary Systems

• Primary distribution systems can be public or private.

• Large consumers, such as process industries and universities, often
have their own primary distribution systems connected to the local
utility.
• Ships use three-phase distribution at 60 Hz, while aircraft and space
systems use 400 Hz

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3. Secondary System Components

• Connects distribution transformers to service entrance in homes and

businesses.
• Overhead systems use triplex cable, underground systems use
aluminum cable.
• Service entrance has a meter to record energy consumption, smart
meters allow remote metering and report loss of power to utilities.
• Customers can install their own generation and storage devices,
including rooftop solar PV and batteries for residential customers,
and co-generation systems (solar, wind, batteries, fuel cells) for
industrial and commercial customers.

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 Distribution Substation

[Link]

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Distribution Substation
• Distribution substations come in many
sizes and configurations.
• A small rural sub-station may have a
nominal rating of 5 MVA while an urban
station may be over 200 MVA. The
A rural distribution substation A suburban distribution substation figures show examples of small, medium,
and large substations.
• As much as possible, many utilities have
standardized substation lay- outs,
transformer sizes, relaying systems, and
automation and SCADA (supervisory
control and data acquisition) facilities.
An urban
distribution
substation

T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook,

2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.

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Distribution Substation
• Two-bank stations are very common; these are the standard design for many
utilities.
• Normally, utilities size the transformers so that if either trans- former fails, the
remaining unit can carry the entire substation’s load. Utility practices vary on
how much safety margin is built into this calculation, and load growth can eat
into the redundancy.

T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.

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Distribution Substation
• High-side and low-side switching
• Voltage transformation: The primary
function of a distribution substation is to
reduce the voltage down to the
distribution voltage level. In Figure, only
one transformer is shown. Other
substation designs will call for two or
more three-phase transformers.
• There are many “standard” distribution
voltage levels. Some of the common are
34.5, 23.9, 14.4, 13.2, 12.47, and, in older
systems, 4.16 kV.

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Distribution Substation
• Voltage regulation: As the load on the
feeders vary, the voltage drop between
the substation and the user will vary.
• In order to maintain the user's voltages
within an acceptable range, the voltage
at the substation needs to vary as the
load varies.
• The voltage is regulated by a “step-type”
regulator that will vary the voltage plus
or minus 10% on the low-side bus.
• Sometimes this function is accomplished
with a “load tap changing” (LTC)
transformer. This can be in the form of a
three-phase gang-operated regulator or
T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.
individual phase regulators that operate
independently.

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Distribution Substation
• Protection: The substation must be
protected against the occurrence of
short circuits.
• In this simple design, the only automatic
protection against short circuits inside
the substation is by way of the high-side
fuses on the transformer.
• Individual feeder circuit breakers or
reclosers are used to provide
interruption of short circuits that occur
outside the substation.

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Distribution Substation
• Metering: Every substation has some
form of metering.
• This may be as simple as an analog
ammeter displaying the present value of
substation current as well as the
minimum and maximum currents that
have occurred over a specific time
period.
• Digital recording meters are becoming
very common. These meters record the
minimum, average, and maximum values
of current, voltage, power, power factor,
etc., over a specified time range. Typical
time ranges are 15 min, 30 min, and 1 h.
T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.

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Distribution Substation
• Under normal conditions, the circuit
breakers (CB) are in the following
positions:
• Circuit breakers closed: X, Y, 1, 3, 4, 6
• Circuit breakers open: Z, 2, 5
• Should one of the sub-transmission lines
go out of service then breaker X or Y is
opened and breaker Z is closed. Now
both transformers are served from the
same sub-transmission line. The
transformers are sized such that each
transformer can supply all four feeders
under an emergency operating
T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014. condition.

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Distribution Substation
• For example, if transformer T-1 is out of
service, then breakers X, 1, and 4 are
opened and breakers 2 and 5 are closed.
• With that breaker arrangement, all four
feeders are served by transformer T-2.
• The low-voltage bus arrangement is
referred to as a “breaker-and-a-half
scheme” since three breakers are
required to serve two feeders.

T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.

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Distribution Substation

• Consider a typical substation that might be fed by two incoming 138

kV lines feeding two 32 MVA, 138/12.47 kV transformers, each with
a low-voltage bus. Each bus has four outgoing distribution feeders of
9 MVA peak capacity each. The total site cost of the substation is
$600,000. The total transmission cost including high-side bus circuit
breakers is estimated to be $900,000. The total costs of the two
transformers and associated equipment is $1,100,000. The feeder
bus-work/getaway cost is $400,000.
• The total cost of this
substation=$600,000+$900,000+$1,100,000+$400,000=$3,000,000

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Primary Distribution Configurations
• Typical distribution substation with one of
the several feeders shown (lateral taps are
left off).
• A feeder is one of the circuits out of the
substation.
• The main feeder is the three-phase backbone
of the circuit, which if often called the mains
or mainline. Main feeder is normally
designed from 400 A and often allows an
emergency rating of 600 A.
• Branching from the main feeders are one or
more laterals, which are also called taps,
lateral taps, branches, or branch lines.
• These laterals may be single phase, two
phase, or three phase.
• The laterals normally have fuses to separate
them from the mainline if they are faulted.
T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.

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Primary Distribution Configurations

• The most common distribution primaries are four-wire, multi-grounded systems: three-phase
conductors plus a multi-grounded neutral.
• Single-phase loads are served by transformers connected between one phase and the neutral.
The neutral acts as a return conductor and as an equipment safety ground (it is grounded
periodically and at all equipment).
• A single-phase line has one phase conductor and the neutral, and a two-phase line has two
phases and the neutral. Some distribution primaries are three-wire systems (with no neutral).
On these, single-phase loads are connected phase to phase, and single-phase lines have two of
the three phases.
• Most distribution circuits are radial (both primary and secondary). Radial circuits have many
advantages over networked circuits including
• Easier fault current protection
• Lower fault currents over most of the circuit
• Easier voltage control
• Easier prediction and control of power flows
• Lower cost
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Primary Distribution Configurations
• The arrangements depend on street layouts, the
shape of the area covered by the circuit, obstacles
(such as lakes), and where the big loads are.
• A common suburban layout has the main feeder
along a street with laterals tapped down side
streets or into developments.
• Radial distribution feeders may also have
extensive branching—what- ever it takes to get to
the loads.
• An express feeder serves load concentrations some
distance from the substation. A three-phase
mainline runs a distance before tapping loads off to
customers. With many circuits coming from one
substation, a number of the circuits may have
express feeders; some feeders cover areas close to
the substation, and express feeders serve areas
farther from the substation.

T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.

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Primary Distribution Configurations

• Two radial circuits with normally open
ties to each other.
• For improved reliability, radial circuits
are often provided with normally open
tie points to other circuits. The circuits
are still operated radially, but if a fault
occurs on one of the circuits, the tie
switches allow some portion of the
faulted circuit to be restored quickly.
• Normally, these switches are manually
operated, but some utilities use
automated switches or reclosers to
perform these operations automatically.
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Primary Distribution Configurations
• Primary-loop distribution arrangement.

• A primary-loop scheme is an even more

reliable service that is sometimes offered
for critical loads such as hospitals.

T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.

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Primary Distribution Configurations

• One-line diagram of typical primary
distribution feeders
• Residential area: Approximately 1000
homes per square mile
• Feeder area: 1-4 square miles depending
on load density
• 15-30 single-phase laterals per feeder
• 150-500 MVA short-circuit available at
substation bus

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Primary Voltage Levels
• Most primary distribution voltages are between 4 and 35 kV. In this class, unless otherwise
specified, voltages are given as line-to-line voltages; this follows the normal industry practice.
• The four major voltage classes are 5, 15, 25, and 35 kV. A voltage class is a term applied to a set
of distribution voltages and the equipment common to them; it is not the actual system voltage.
For example, a 15-kV insulator is suitable for application on any 15-kV class voltage, including
12.47, 13.2, and 13.8 kV.
• Utilities most widely use the 15-kV voltages. The most common 15-kV voltage is 12.47 kV, which
has a line-to-ground voltage of 7.2 kV.
• The dividing line between distribution and sub-transmission is often gray. Some lines act as both
sub-transmission and distribution circuits. A 34.5-kV circuit may feed a few 12.5-kV distribution
substations, but it may also serve some load directly. Some utilities would refer to this as sub-
transmission; others would refer to this as distribution.
• We saw a move to higher-voltage primary distribution systems. Higher-voltage distribution
systems have advantages and disadvantage.

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Primary Voltage levels

• The 15 kV-class primary voltage levels are most
commonly used.
• The most common primary distribution voltage
in use throughout North America is 12.47 kV.
• However, the current trend is toward higher
voltages, for example, the 34.5 kV class is gaining
rapid acceptance.
• The 5 kV class continues to decline in usage.
Some distribution systems use more than one
primary voltage, for example, 12.47 and 34.5 kV.
• We saw a move to higher-voltage primary
distribution systems. Higher-voltage distribution
systems have advantages and disadvantage.

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Primary Voltage Levels
• A 34.5 kV mainline is typically 30-mile long.
• A 12.5 kV mainline is typically 8-mile long.
• Overall, the 15-kV class voltages provide a good balance between cost, reliability, safety, and reach.
Although a 15-kV circuit does not naturally provide long reach, with voltage regulators and feeder
capacitors, it can be stretched to reach 20 mi or more. That said, higher voltages have advantages,
especially for rural lines and for high-load areas, particularly where substation space is expensive.

T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.

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Secondary Distribution Configurations

• The standard voltage level for single-phase residential loads is 120/240 V. It is supplied through three-wire
single-phase services, from which both 120 V lighting and 240 V single-phase power connections are made
to large household appliances such as ranges, clothes dryers, and water heaters.
• Generally, the secondary distribution systems are designed in single phase for areas of residential
customers and in three phase for areas of industrial or commercial customers with high-load densities. The
types of the secondary distribution systems include the following:
 The separate-service system for each consumer with separate distribution transformer and secondary connection
 The radial system with a common secondary main, which is supplied by one distribution transformer and feeding a
group of consumers
 The secondary-bank system with a common secondary main that is supplied by several distribution transformers,
which are all fed by the same primary feeder
 The secondary-network system with a common grid-type main that is supplied by a large number of the
distribution transformers, which may be connected to various feeders for their supplies
• The separate-service system is seldom used and serves the industrial- or rural-type service areas.
• Generally speaking, most of the secondary systems for serving residential, rural, and light commercial areas
are radial designed.

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Secondary Distribution Configurations

• One-line diagram of a
simple radial secondary
system

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Transformer Banking ‐ Secondary banking

• Transformer banking typically refers to the parallel connection of the secondary

sides of two or more distribution transformers supplied from the same primary
feeder.
• Increased Capacity: Achieve higher power ratings than a single transformer can provide.
• Improved Reliability: Redundancy – if one transformer fails, the others can still operate.
• Flexibility: Easily adjust capacity by adding or removing transformers.
• Voltage Regulation: Better voltage control, especially in varying load conditions.
• Reduced Spare Capacity: Instead of a single large spare, smaller, identical units can be spares
for multiple banks.
• Phased Installation: Allows for gradual increase in capacity as demand grows.

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Secondary Distribution Configurations

Type 1 secondary banking Type 2 secondary banking

T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.

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Secondary Distribution Configurations

Type 3 secondary banking Type 4 secondary banking

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Secondary Networks
• Generally speaking, most of the
secondary systems are radial designed
except for some specific service areas
(e.g., downtown areas or business
districts, some military installations,
hospitals) where the reliability and
service-continuity considerations are far
more important than the cost
and economic considerations. Therefore
the secondary systems may be designed
in grid- or mesh-type network
configurations in those areas.
• One-line diagram of the small segment of
a secondary-network system.
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Typical Distribution Circuit Parameters

T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.
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Radial Feeders
• Components of the feeder may consist of the following:
i. Three-phase primary “main” feeder
ii. Three-phase, two-phase (“V” phase), and single-phase laterals
iii. Step-type voltage regulators
iv. In-line transformers
v. Shunt capacitor banks
vi. Distribution transformers
vii. Secondaries
viii. Three-phase, two-phase, and single-phase loads
• The loading of a distribution feeder is inherently unbalanced because of the large number of unequal
single-phase loads that must be served.
• An additional unbalance is introduced by the non equilateral conductor spacings of the three-phase
overhead and underground line segments.
• Conventional power-flow and short-circuit programs used for transmission system studies are not
adequate.
• Three-phase models of the major components must be utilized.

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Illustration of Load Connected to a Distribution Transformer

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Typical Daily Load Profiles

T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.
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Aggregate Load Curves

• Development of aggregate load curves for winter peak period. Miscellaneous load includes street lighting
and sales to other agencies. Dashed curve shown on system load diagram is actual system generation sent
out. Solid curve is based on group load study data.

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Voltage Drop at Peak Load

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65

Annual Utility Distribution Budgets

• Numbers are in U.S. dollars.

• Distribution systems are capital-intensive business.
• Distribution asset: 49.5% of the total distribution
resource; labor: 21.8%; materials: 12.9%.
T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.
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Distribution Circuit Loss Statistics (Percent)

T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.
67

North American Versus European Distribution Layouts

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North American versus European distribution
layouts
• Distribution systems around the world have evolved into different forms. The two main designs
are North American and European.
• For both forms, hardware is much the same: conductors, cables, insulators, arresters, regulators,
and transformers are very similar. Both systems are radial, and voltages and power carrying
capabilities are similar.
• The main differences are in layouts, configurations, and applications.
• Relative to North American designs, European systems have larger transformers and more
customers per transformer. Most European transformers are three phase and on the order of
300 to 1000 kVA, much larger than the typical North American 25- or 50-kVA single-phase units.

69

North American versus European distribution

layouts
• Secondary voltages have motivated many of the differences in distribution systems.
North America has standardized on a 120/240-V secondary system; on these, voltage
drop constrains how far utilities can run secondaries, typically not more than 250 ft. In
European designs, higher secondary voltages allow secondaries to stretch to almost 1
mi. European secondaries are largely three phase and most European countries have a
standard secondary voltage of 220, 230, or 240 V, twice the North American standard.
With twice the voltage, a circuit feeding the same load can reach 4 times the distance.
And, because three-phase secondaries can reach over twice the length of a single-phase
secondary, overall, a European secondary can reach 8 times the length of an American
secondary for a given load and voltage drop.
• In the European design, secondaries are used much like primary laterals in the North
American design. In European designs, the primary is not tapped frequently, and
primary-level fuses are not used as much.

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Control and Communication Hierarchy

• From Chen, A.C.M.,

Automated power
distribution, IEEE
Spectrum, pp. 55–60,
April 1982.

71

Electricity Rate Structure

• Rate Regulation: Public utility rates are government regulated and

tied to the cost of service.
• Revenue Requirement: Calculated as (operating expenses) +
(depreciation expenses) + (taxes) + (net valuation) × (rate of
return). Regulatory commissions oversee revenue requirements.
• Rate Design: Utility management designs rate schedules to generate
required revenue, subject to commission review. Commissions offer
opportunity to earn, not guaranteed earnings.
• Rate of Return: Should reflect local conditions, be comparable to
similar companies, and ensure creditworthiness and capital
attraction.
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Electricity Rate Structure

• Rate Schedules: Must avoid unjust discrimination; similar customers

under similar conditions should have similar prices. Customer
classification is allowed, but equal treatment within classes is
required.
• Rate Structures: Various types exist, including:
• Flat demand rate
• Straight-line meter rate
• Block meter rate
• Demand rate
• Seasonal rate
• Time-of-day (peak-load pricing) rate
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Electricity Rate Structure

• Flat & Straight-Line Rates: Single price per kWh; flat rate often used
for services like lighting.
• Block Meter Rate: Tiered pricing; decreasing price per kWh for
higher usage. Doesn't encourage conservation.
• Demand Rate: Charges separately for demand and energy usage.
• Seasonal & Time-of-Day Rates: Higher prices during peak periods,
lower during off-peak, to reduce peak load and idle capacity.

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Billing Example – Rate Schedule

75

Billing Example – Consumption of 2200 kWh

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Typical Energy Rate Schedule for Commercial Users

77

Fuel Price Adjustment (FPA)

• Mechanism used by Power Companies to adjust electricity tariffs

based on fuel price fluctuations.
• Allows Power Companies to recover actual fuel costs for power
generation.
• How it Works:
• Regulators set a reference fuel cost.
• Power Companies monitor fuel costs (coal, gas, etc.).
• Power Companies track actual fuel costs.
• FPA calculated based on difference between actual and reference costs (positive or
negative).
• Requires regulatory approval.
• Applied to consumer bills.

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Fuel Price Adjustment (FPA)

• Benefits:
• Cost recovery for Discos.
• Price stability for consumers.
• Transparency in pricing.
• Challenges:
• Complexity in calculations.
• Potential tariff volatility.
• Transparency concerns.
• Overall: Important for Disco financial viability and stable consumer
pricing, but requires transparency and understanding.

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Electric meters

• An electromechanical demand meter for large

customers
• A demand meter is basically a watthour meter
with a timing element added. The meter
• Single-phase electromechanical functions as an integrator and adds up the
kilowatthours of energy used in a certain time
watthour meter interval, for example, 15, 30, or 60 min.
Therefore, the demand meter indicates energy
per time interval, or average power, which is
expressed in kilowatts.
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Smart distribution grids

81

Smart Distribution Grids

• Discretionary load switching
• Peak load pricing
• Load shedding
• Cold load pickup
• Load reconfiguration
• Voltage regulation
• Transformer load management (TLM)
• Feeder load management (FLM)
• Capacitor control
• Dispersed storage and generation
• Fault detection, control, and isolation
• Load studies
• Condition and state monitoring
• Automatic customer meter reading
• Remote service connection or
disconnection
• Switching operations
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