COM 122: COMMUNICATION AND STUDY SKILLS

DISTANCE LEARNING MODULE

Author: Department of Educational Studies

Credit Hours: 3
Target: First-year Undergraduate Students (Non-Quota)
Mode: Self-study with tutorial support

HOW TO USE THIS MODULE

This module is divided into 12 units (one per week of study). Each unit contains:

1. Introduction – What you will learn

2. Learning Outcomes – Specific goals
3. Core Content – Detailed explanations with examples
4. Activity – Practical task to complete
5. Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) – Check your understanding
6. Feedback/Answers – Compare your responses
7. Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) – To submit

You will need:

• A notebook for activities

• Access to a library or internet (for referencing practice)
• A dictionary (English)
• A mirror or recording device (for presentation practice)

COURSE OVERVIEW

Course Background

This course introduces students to the fundamental principles of effective communication and
essential study skills for academic success. It covers the communication process, types and
barriers to communication, theories of communication, academic and information literacy,
referencing (APA style), punctuation, mechanics of writing, visual communication, study
skills, academic and scientific writing genres, and presentation skills. The course prepares
students for university-level academic work and professional communication.

Rationale
Effective communication and strong study skills are essential for academic success at the
university level. This course equips students with the tools to communicate clearly, read
critically, write academically, reference correctly, manage their studies efficiently, produce
various types of academic and scientific writing, and deliver effective presentations. These
skills are transferable to professional practice and lifelong learning.

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this course, students should be able to:

1. Define communication and explain the communication process.

2. Identify types of communication and barriers to effective communication.
3. Explain major theories of communication.
4. Demonstrate academic and information literacy skills.
5. Use APA referencing correctly for various sources.
6. Apply correct punctuation and mechanics of writing.
7. Use visual communication effectively.
8. Apply study skills for academic success.
9. Distinguish between different types of academic and scientific writing.
10. Produce different academic and scientific texts (abstracts, research proposals, lab
reports, literature reviews, etc.).
11. Demonstrate cohesion and coherence in academic writing.
12. Prepare and deliver effective oral presentations.
13. Use presentation aids and manage presentation anxiety.

UNIT 1: WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

1.1 Introduction

Communication is the foundation of human interaction. As a student and future professional,

your ability to communicate effectively will determine your success in university, your career,
and your personal relationships. This unit defines communication, explores its importance,
and introduces the key elements that make communication effective.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define communication from multiple perspectives.

2. Explain the importance of communication in education and daily life.
3. List and describe the key elements of communication.
4. Distinguish between effective and ineffective communication.
1.3 Core Content

1.3.1 Defining Communication

Etymology: The word "communication" comes from the Latin word communicare, meaning
"to share" or "to make common."

Definitions from different perspectives:

Scholar/Field Definition Key idea

General Communication is the exchange of information, Exchange
ideas, thoughts, and feelings between people.
Shannon & Communication is the transmission of a message Transmission
Weaver (1949) from a sender to a receiver through a channel.
Berlo (1960) Communication is the process of sending and Understanding
receiving messages that are understood.
Barnlund (1970) Communication is the production of meaning Meaning
through symbolic interaction.
Education Communication is the process by which teachers Teaching-
and learners share knowledge, values, and skills. learning

A working definition for this course:

Communication is the process of creating, transmitting, and interpreting messages between a

sender and a receiver to achieve shared understanding.

1.3.2 The Importance of Communication

Why communication matters in education and life:

Area Importance Example

Academic success You need to understand lectures, A student who cannot ask
write essays, and participate in clarifying questions struggles.
discussions.
Professional Professionals communicate with A presentation to management
practice colleagues, clients, and supervisors. requires clear communication.
Social Friendships and family relationships Resolving conflict requires
relationships depend on effective communication. listening and speaking.
 Personal Communication helps you express Public speaking builds self-
development yourself, build confidence, and think esteem.
critically.
Leadership Leaders inspire, direct, and motivate A team leader addresses a
through communication. meeting.
Scientific Research must be shared to advance Writing a research paper or
communication knowledge. presenting at a conference.

Quote to remember: "The single biggest problem in communication is the illusion that it has
taken place." – George Bernard Shaw

1.3.3 Key Elements of Communication

Every communication event involves the following elements:

Element Definition Example

Sender The person who initiates the message. A lecturer begins a lesson.
(Encoder)
Message The information, idea, or feeling "The test is on Friday."
being communicated.
Channel The means by which the message is Spoken words, email, text
(Medium) transmitted. message, gesture.
Receiver The person for whom the message is A student listening to the
(Decoder) intended. lecturer.
Feedback The receiver's response to the A student nods or asks a
message. question.
Context The environment or situation in which A classroom, a noisy market, a
communication occurs. quiet office.
Noise Anything that interferes with the Background noise, distraction,
(Barrier) message. language difference.

Diagram of the communication process (mental image):

text
Sender → Encodes → Message → Channel → Decodes → Receiver
↑ ↓
└────────────── Feedback ────────────────────┘
(with noise throughout)
1.3.4 Effective vs. Ineffective Communication

Aspect Effective Communication Ineffective Communication

Message Clear, specific, concise Vague, rambling, ambiguous
clarity
Understanding Receiver understands as intended Receiver misunderstands
Feedback Receiver provides appropriate No feedback or inappropriate
feedback response
Noise Minimal or managed High or ignored
Outcome Goal achieved Goal not achieved
Relationship Strengthened or maintained Damaged or strained

Example of effective communication:

Lecturer: "Please read chapter 5 of the textbook before next week's class. The quiz will cover
sections 5.1 to 5.3."
Student: "Does the quiz include section 5.4?"
Lecturer: "No, only 5.1 to 5.3."

Example of ineffective communication:

Lecturer: "Okay, read the chapter. You know, the one about... it's in the book. Just read it."
Students: (Confused, unsure which chapter, read the wrong one)

1.3.5 Misconceptions About Communication

Misconception Truth
"I communicate, therefore they Sending a message does not guarantee
understand." understanding.
"More communication is always Too much communication can overwhelm.
better."
"Communication is just common Effective communication requires skill and
sense." practice.
"Meanings are in words." Meanings are in people, not words.
"Communication solves all problems." Some problems require action, not just talk.

1.4 Activities

Activity 1.1: In your notebook, write your own definition of communication. Then compare it
to the definitions given in 1.3.1. What did you include? What did you miss?
Activity 1.2: Recall a recent misunderstanding you had with someone. Using the elements
from 1.3.3, identify:

• Who was the sender?

• What was the message?
• What was the channel?
• Who was the receiver?
• What noise or barrier caused the misunderstanding?
• How could it have been avoided?

Activity 1.3: For each of the following situations, identify whether communication was
effective or ineffective. Justify your answer.

• a) A lecturer gives a 60-minute lecture. Most students are asleep. The lecturer finishes
and leaves.
• b) A student emails a professor: "Dear Professor, I missed class yesterday. Could you
please tell me what I missed? Thank you." The professor replies with the topics
covered and page numbers.
• c) A supervisor gives unclear instructions to an employee. The employee completes
the task incorrectly. The supervisor is angry.

1.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

SAQ 1.1: What is the origin of the word "communication"?

SAQ 1.2: List five elements of the communication process.

SAQ 1.3: What is the difference between a message and feedback?

SAQ 1.4: Why is it possible for a sender to communicate but not be understood?

SAQ 1.5: Give an example of effective communication in a university lecture.

1.6 Feedback to SAQs

Feedback 1.1: The word "communication" comes from the Latin word communicare,
meaning "to share" or "to make common."

Feedback 1.2: Any five from: sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, context, noise.

Feedback 1.3: A message is the information being sent from the sender to the receiver.
Feedback is the receiver's response to the message, which tells the sender whether the
message was understood.

Feedback 1.4: Communication is not just about sending a message; it requires shared
understanding. If the receiver does not decode the message as intended (due to noise, lack of
shared language, distraction, etc.), communication has not occurred effectively.
Feedback 1.5: Example: A lecturer gives clear instructions: "The assignment is due next
Friday. Submit it online via the course portal. The assignment should be 1500 words and
include at least 5 references." Students understand and ask clarifying questions.

1.7 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) for Unit 1

Due: End of Week 1

Instructions:

Write a short essay (500-600 words, approximately 2 handwritten pages) on the following
topic:

"Why is effective communication essential for university students?"

Your essay must include:

• An introduction stating your main argument.

• At least three body paragraphs with supporting points (e.g., academic success,
professional preparation, social integration).
• A conclusion.
• At least three examples from university life.
• Correct paragraph structure and grammar.

Marking rubric:

Criteria Marks
Clear definition of communication 5
Relevance to university students 10
Examples provided 5
Structure (intro, body, conclusion) 5
Grammar and clarity 5
Total 30

UNIT 2: TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

2.1 Introduction

Communication takes many forms. Understanding the different types of communication helps
you choose the most appropriate mode for your purpose, audience, and context. This unit
covers verbal vs. non-verbal communication, oral vs. written communication, formal vs.
informal communication, and one-way vs. two-way communication.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish between verbal and non-verbal communication.

2. Identify different types of non-verbal communication (kinesics, proxemics,
paralanguage, etc.).
3. Compare oral and written communication.
4. Distinguish between formal and informal communication.
5. Distinguish between one-way and two-way communication.

2.3 Core Content

2.3.1 Overview of Communication Types

Classification Types
By medium Verbal (spoken/written) vs. Non-verbal
By channel Oral vs. Written
By context Formal vs. Informal
By direction One-way vs. Two-way
By participants Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Group, Mass, Public

2.3.2 Verbal vs. Non-Verbal Communication

Aspect Verbal Communication Non-Verbal

Communication
Definition Communication using Communication without
words words
Forms Spoken and written Gestures, body language,
facial expressions, tone, etc.
Percentage in face-to-face 7% (words) 93% (38% tone, 55% body
communication language)
(Mehrabian)
Advantages Precise, detailed, can be Conveys emotion,
recorded universal, often more honest
 Disadvantages Can be misinterpreted; Can be ambiguous; varies
words alone lack emotion by culture

Key insight from Albert Mehrabian (1971): In face-to-face communication about feelings
and attitudes:

• 7% of meaning is from words

• 38% from tone of voice (paralanguage)
• 55% from body language (facial expressions, posture, gestures)

2.3.3 Types of Non-Verbal Communication

Type Definition Examples Cultural note

Kinesics Body language, Nodding, crossing In some cultures,
gestures, posture arms, pointing, pointing is rude; nodding
waving may mean "I hear you"
not "I agree"
Facial Movements of the Smiling (happy), Many facial expressions
expressions face conveying frowning (sad), raised are universal
emotion eyebrows (surprise)
Eye contact Use of eyes in Direct eye contact In some cultures,
(oculesics) communication (confidence), looking avoiding eye contact
away (shyness, with elders is respectful
respect)
Paralanguage Vocal features other Pitch, volume, speed, Varies across languages
than words pauses, sighs, laughter and contexts
Proxemics Use of personal Intimate, personal, Varies by culture
space social, public distance
Haptics Touch as Handshake, pat on Varies significantly
communication back, hug across cultures
Chronemics Use of time in Being on time Punctuality expectations
communication (respect), being late vary
(disrespect)
Artifacts Objects that Clothing, jewellery, Signals status,
communicate glasses, briefcase profession, identity

2.3.4 Oral vs. Written Communication

 Aspect Oral Communication Written Communication
Channel Spoken words (face-to-face, Written words (email, letter, report,
phone, video call) text)
Feedback Immediate Delayed
Permanence Temporary (unless recorded) Permanent
Planning Less time to plan More time to plan, revise, edit
Formality Can be formal or informal Often more formal
Legal status Harder to prove Easier to prove
Non-verbal Present Absent (except emojis, formatting)
cues
Best for... Quick exchanges, relationship Detailed information, records,
building formal communication

2.3.5 Formal vs. Informal Communication

Aspect Formal Communication Informal Communication

Setting Official, professional, academic Casual, personal, social
Language Standard grammar, complete sentences Contractions, slang, incomplete
sentences
Structure Organised, planned Spontaneous, unstructured
Examples Business letter, academic essay, Chat with friends, text message
official report
Audience Unfamiliar, authority figures Friends, family

Examples of formal vs. informal (same message):

Message Formal Informal

Requesting "I am writing to inquire about the "Hey, is the book
information availability of the textbook." available?"

Apologising "Please accept my sincere apologies for "Sorry I'm late."

the delay."

2.3.6 One-Way vs. Two-Way Communication

Aspect One-Way Communication Two-Way Communication

Direction From sender to receiver only Sender and receiver exchange roles
 Feedback No feedback (or delayed) Immediate feedback
Example Lecture, television broadcast Conversation, discussion
Advantages Efficient for large audiences Clarification, deeper understanding
Disadvantages No confirmation of understanding Takes more time

2.4 Activities

Activity 2.1: Observe a conversation between two people. For 5 minutes, note down
examples of non-verbal communication you observe. What messages do these non-verbal
cues send?

Activity 2.2: Rewrite the following informal sentences in formal language suitable for an
academic email to a professor.

• a) "Hey Prof, I missed class. Can you tell me what I missed? Thanks."
• b) "I'm gonna be late with my paper. Is that okay?"

Activity 2.3: Identify the type of communication (intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group,
public, mass) in each:

• a) A student writing in their journal.

• b) A news anchor reading the evening news.
• c) A lecturer giving a lesson to 200 students.

2.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

SAQ 2.1: What is the difference between verbal and non-verbal communication?

SAQ 2.2: According to Mehrabian, what percentage of communication is conveyed through

words alone?

SAQ 2.3: What is paralanguage? Give two examples.

SAQ 2.4: Why might a lecturer choose written communication over oral communication for
giving assignment instructions?

SAQ 2.5: What is the main difference between one-way and two-way communication?

2.6 Feedback to SAQs

Feedback 2.1: Verbal communication uses words (spoken or written). Non-verbal

communication uses gestures, body language, facial expressions, tone, and other cues without
words.

Feedback 2.2: According to Mehrabian, 7% of communication about feelings and attitudes is

conveyed through words alone. The rest comes from tone (38%) and body language (55%).
Feedback 2.3: Paralanguage is the vocal features of speech other than the words themselves.
Examples: pitch (high/low), volume (loud/soft), speed (fast/slow), pauses, sighs.

Feedback 2.4: Written communication is permanent; students can refer back to the
instructions. It is also more precise and can be more detailed. It avoids confusion that can
arise from oral instructions that students may forget or misinterpret.

Feedback 2.5: One-way communication flows only from sender to receiver with no feedback
(e.g., a lecture). Two-way communication involves feedback from the receiver to the sender,
allowing for clarification and confirmation.

2.7 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) for Unit 2

Due: End of Week 2

Instructions:

Part 1: Non-Verbal Observation (10 marks)

Observe a 10-minute interaction between two people. Write a 1-page observation report
including:

• The setting and participants

• At least 5 specific examples of non-verbal communication observed
• For each example, what message you think was being sent

Part 2: Formal vs. Informal Conversion (10 marks)

Rewrite the following informal email as a formal email to a university lecturer.

Informal email: "Hi Dr. Banda, I'm the guy in your Monday class. I've been sick for like two
weeks. Can you send me the notes and tell me what to do about the test I missed? I really need
to pass this course. Let me know. Thanks, Mutale"

Part 3: Communication Type Scenarios (10 marks)

For each scenario, identify the most appropriate type of communication (oral/written,
formal/informal, one-way/two-way) and justify your choice.

• a) A university department head announcing a new policy to all students.

• b) A student asking a lecturer for clarification on an assignment.
• c) A formal complaint about a grade.

Total marks: 30
UNIT 3: BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

3.1 Introduction

Even when we intend to communicate effectively, many barriers can interfere. This unit
identifies the major barriers to communication – physical, psychological, semantic, cultural,
and organisational – and provides strategies for overcoming them.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Identify at least five types of communication barriers.

2. Explain how each barrier interferes with communication.
3. Apply strategies to overcome communication barriers.

3.3 Core Content

3.3.1 What is a Communication Barrier?

Definition: A communication barrier is anything that interferes with the accurate

transmission, reception, or interpretation of a message.

Types of barriers (overview):

Category Examples
Physical Noise, distance, poor technology
Psychological Emotions, stress, defensiveness, prejudice
Semantic Language differences, jargon, ambiguity
Cultural Different norms, values, beliefs, customs
Organisational Hierarchy, rules, information overload

3.3.2 Physical Barriers

Barrier Explanation Example Solution

Noise Any sound that Construction outside, people Move to quieter
interferes talking location
Distance Physical separation Large lecture hall Use microphone
 Poor Equipment failure Crackling phone line Check equipment
technology before use
Time Inappropriate Announcing news when Choose appropriate
timing people are leaving time

3.3.3 Psychological Barriers

Barrier Explanation Example Solution

Emotions Strong feelings that Angry student cannot Allow time to settle
distort perception listen
Stress Mental pressure that Worried about exams Reduce stress where
reduces attention possible
Defensiveness Feeling attacked, Student stops Use "I" statements
leading to resistance listening to criticism
Prejudice Preconceived negative Assumes lecturer is Acknowledge bias
opinions boring
Selective Hearing only what you Only hears easy parts Repeat key points
perception want to hear of assignment

3.3.4 Semantic Barriers

Barrier Explanation Example Solution

Language No common Lecturer uses complex English; Simplify
differences language student's first language is different language
Jargon Specialised "Epistemological foundations" Explain
language jargon
Ambiguity Words with "That's a great idea!" (sincere or Clarify
multiple meanings sarcastic?) meaning
Abstract Vague, general "Do your best" (what does "best" Be specific
language terms mean?)

Denotation vs. connotation examples:

Word Denotation Connotation

 Home Place where one lives Warmth, safety, family

House Building for living Neutral

Childish Like a child Negative (immature)

Childlike Like a child Positive (innocent)

3.3.5 Cultural Barriers

Barrier Explanation Example Solution

Different Direct vs. indirect Some cultures say "no" Learn about
communication directly; others say "I'll try" cultural styles
styles
Non-verbal Gestures have "Thumbs up" is positive in Avoid gestures
differences different some cultures, offensive in with unknown
meanings others meanings
Eye contact norms Different Direct eye contact is Observe and
expectations respectful in some cultures, adapt
disrespectful in others

3.3.6 Overcoming Communication Barriers: Summary Guide

Barrier category Key strategies

Physical Control environment; check technology; reduce noise
Psychological Manage emotions; be aware of bias
Semantic Use clear language; explain jargon; define ambiguous terms
Cultural Learn about other cultures; adapt style; ask clarifying questions
Organisational Use appropriate channels; avoid overload

Universal strategies:

Strategy How to do it
Active listening Pay full attention; show you are listening; provide feedback
 Clarification Ask questions: "What do you mean by...?"
Repetition Repeat important points in different ways
Feedback Ask for confirmation: "Does that make sense?"
Empathy Try to understand the other person's perspective

3.4 Activities

Activity 3.1: For each scenario, identify the primary barrier(s) and suggest a solution.

• a) A lecturer speaks in a monotone voice. After 10 minutes, students are looking at

their phones.
• b) A student from a culture where eye contact with elders is disrespectful is told:
"Look at me when I speak to you!" The student becomes uncomfortable.
• c) A department head sends a 15-page email with instructions. Most staff do not read
it.

Activity 3.2: List 5 examples of jargon from your field of study. For each, write a plain-
language explanation.

Activity 3.3: Reflect on a time you experienced a communication barrier. Write a paragraph
answering:

• What was the situation?

• What barrier(s) occurred?
• How did you respond?
• What could you have done differently?

3.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

SAQ 3.1: What is a communication barrier?

SAQ 3.2: A student is very anxious about an upcoming exam and does not hear the lecturer's
review instructions. What type of barrier is this?

SAQ 3.3: What is the difference between denotation and connotation?

SAQ 3.4: Why might a student from a culture that values indirect communication say "I will
try" when they mean "no"?

SAQ 3.5: What is active listening?

3.6 Feedback to SAQs

Feedback 3.1: A communication barrier is anything that interferes with the accurate
transmission, reception, or interpretation of a message.
Feedback 3.2: This is a psychological barrier, specifically stress and anxiety.

Feedback 3.3: Denotation is the literal, dictionary meaning of a word. Connotation is the
emotional or cultural association.

Feedback 3.4: In many cultures, directly saying "no" is considered rude. Saying "I will try" is
a polite way to decline without causing offence.

Feedback 3.5: Active listening is fully concentrating on, understanding, and responding to a
speaker.

3.7 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) for Unit 3

Due: End of Week 3

Instructions:

Read the following case study. Identify at least 5 different communication barriers. For each
barrier, name it, explain why it is a barrier, and suggest a solution.

*Case Study: A university lecturer, Dr. Mwansa, is teaching a large class of 200 first-year
students. Many students speak Bemba or Chinyanja as their first language. Dr. Mwansa uses
complex academic English and speaks quickly. The air conditioning is broken, and the room
is very hot. Many students are fanning themselves. At the back of the room, a group of
students is talking quietly. After 45 minutes, he stops and asks, "Any questions?" No one
responds. He assumes they understood and leaves.*

Total marks: 25
UNIT 4: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND THEORIES OF

COMMUNICATION

4.1 Introduction

To communicate effectively, you need to understand not just the elements of communication
but also how they work together as a process. This unit presents models of the communication
process and introduces major theories of communication.

4.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Describe the communication process using the Shannon-Weaver model.

2. Explain the interactive and transactional models of communication.
3. Identify key theories of communication (rhetorical, semiotic, sociocultural).

4.3 Core Content

4.3.1 The Communication Process: Linear Model (Shannon-Weaver, 1949)

Elements of the Shannon-Weaver model:

Element Definition Example

Information source The origin of the message (sender) A lecturer preparing a
lesson
Transmitter Converts the message into a signal The lecturer's vocal cords
(encoder)
Channel The medium carrying the signal Sound waves
Receiver (decoder) Converts the signal back into a The student's ears and
message brain
Destination The person for whom the message is The student
intended
Noise Any interference Background talking

Limitations of the linear model:

• Assumes communication is one-way (no feedback)

• Ignores context and relationship
4.3.2 The Communication Process: Interactive Model (Schramm, 1954)

Schramm added feedback and field of experience.

Concept Definition Example

Feedback The receiver's response to the A student nods or asks a question
message
Field of Shared knowledge, values, and A teacher and student who share a
experience experiences cultural background

4.3.3 The Communication Process: Transactional Model (Barnlund, 1970)

The transactional model recognises that communication is simultaneous and both parties
are co-creating meaning.

Key features:

• Both parties are sending and receiving at the same time

• Each communication act affects both parties
• Meaning is negotiated, not just sent

4.3.4 Major Theories of Communication

Perspective Focus Key idea Key

theorists
Rhetorical Persuasion Communication is used to persuade Aristotle
audiences
Semiotic Signs and symbols Meaning is created through signs Saussure,
Peirce
Sociocultural Social and cultural Communication is shaped by culture Vygotsky,
context and social structures Hall

Rhetorical theory (Aristotle):

Concept Definition Example

Ethos Credibility of the speaker A doctor speaking about health
Pathos Emotional appeal A speech that makes the audience feel sad
Logos Logical appeal Using statistics and facts

Semiotic theory (Saussure, Peirce):

 Concept Definition Example
Signifier The physical form of the sign The letters "t-r-e-e"
Signified The mental concept The idea of a tree
Icon A sign that resembles what it represents A photograph
Symbol An arbitrary, learned connection Words

Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky):

Concept Definition
Zone of Proximal Development The gap between what a learner can do alone and
(ZPD) with help
Scaffolding Support provided to help a learner achieve a task
Social interaction Learning occurs through interaction with others

4.4 Activities

Activity 4.1: Draw the Shannon-Weaver model of communication. Label each element.

Activity 4.2: Explain the difference between the linear, interactive, and transactional models.

Activity 4.3: For each situation, identify which rhetorical appeal (ethos, pathos, logos) is
being used:

• a) "According to research from the University of Zambia, 85% of students who study
in groups perform better."
• b) "As a professor with 20 years of experience, I can tell you that this method works."
• c) "Imagine a child who cannot read. Imagine their frustration. We can change that."

4.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

SAQ 4.1: What is the main limitation of the Shannon-Weaver linear model?

SAQ 4.2: What did Schramm add to the communication model?

SAQ 4.3: According to the transactional model, can you "not communicate"? Explain.

SAQ 4.4: What are ethos, pathos, and logos?

SAQ 4.5: What is the difference between a signifier and a signified?

4.6 Feedback to SAQs

Feedback 4.1: The Shannon-Weaver linear model assumes communication is one-way with
no feedback. It ignores the receiver's response and context.

Feedback 4.2: Schramm added feedback (the receiver's response) and the concept of "field of
experience" (shared knowledge).

Feedback 4.3: According to the transactional model, you cannot not communicate. Even
silence communicates something.

Feedback 4.4: Ethos is credibility, pathos is emotional appeal, logos is logical appeal.

Feedback 4.5: The signifier is the physical form of the sign (the sound or written word). The
signified is the mental concept it represents.

4.7 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) for Unit 4

Due: End of Week 4

Instructions:

Write a 1-page essay comparing the linear, interactive, and transactional models of
communication. Include:

• The key features of each model

• The main limitation of each model
• Which model best describes university lecture communication? Justify.

Total marks: 20

UNIT 5: ACADEMIC LITERACY (INCLUDING COHESION AND COHERENCE)

5.1 Introduction

Academic literacy is the ability to read, understand, evaluate, and produce written texts
required in academic contexts. This unit prepares you for university-level academic work. A
special focus is placed on cohesion and coherence – the essential features that make a piece
of writing flow logically and smoothly.

5.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define academic literacy and distinguish it from basic literacy.

 2. Identify the features of academic writing.
3. Read academic texts critically.
4. Write academic essays with clear structure.
5. Distinguish between cohesion and coherence.
6. Use cohesive devices (reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, lexical
cohesion) effectively.
7. Ensure coherence in your writing through logical organisation.
8. Apply techniques to improve cohesion and coherence in your own writing.

5.3 Core Content

5.3.1 What is Academic Literacy?

Definition: Academic literacy is the set of skills needed to understand, evaluate, and produce
texts in academic contexts.

Components of academic literacy:

Component Definition

Reading comprehension Understanding academic texts

Critical thinking Evaluating arguments and evidence

Academic writing Producing texts in academic genres

Information literacy Finding, evaluating, and using sources

Academic vocabulary Using discipline-specific language

Basic literacy vs. Academic literacy:

Aspect Basic Literacy Academic Literacy

Goal Function in daily life Succeed in university
Texts Newspapers, signs Journal articles, textbooks
Reading Literal comprehension Critical analysis
Writing Personal letters Essays, research papers
5.3.2 Features of Academic Writing

Feature Explanation Example (non-academic vs. academic)

Formal tone No slang or "The experiment didn't work." → "The
contractions experiment did not yield the expected
results."
Objectivity Focus on evidence, "I think this theory is wrong." → "This
not feelings theory has been criticised on several
grounds."
Precision Specific, concrete "A lot of people" → "Approximately 65%
language of participants"
Evidence- Claims supported by "Group work is effective." → "According to
based research Johnson (2019), group work improves
learning outcomes."
Referencing Citations to (No citation) → (Jones, 2020)
acknowledge
sources
Hedging Cautious language "This proves that..." → "This suggests
that..."
Structured Clear organisation Disorganised → Introduction, body,
conclusion
Cohesive and Smooth flow and (See sections 5.3.5 and 5.3.6)
coherent logical connection

5.3.3 Reading Academic Texts Critically

Critical reading IS:

• Questioning the author's assumptions

• Evaluating the evidence
• Identifying bias
• Comparing with other sources

A framework for critical reading:

Question What to look for

Who is the author? Credentials, potential bias
What is the purpose? To inform? To persuade?
What is the evidence? Data? Anecdotes? Research?
 Are there alternative explanations? Could the data be interpreted differently?
What assumptions does the author make? Unstated beliefs or values

5.3.4 The Structure of Academic Essays

Introduction (10-15% of essay length):

Component What to include

Hook Opening sentence to grab attention
Background Context or background information
Thesis statement Your main argument (one sentence)
Roadmap Brief outline of the essay's structure

Body paragraphs (70-80% of essay length):

Component What to include

Topic sentence The main point of the paragraph
Evidence Facts, examples, research, quotes
Explanation Explain how the evidence supports your point
Concluding sentence Link back to thesis or transition

Conclusion (10-15% of essay length):

Component What to include

Restate thesis Restate your main argument (new words)
Summarise main points Briefly review your key arguments
Implications Why does this matter?
Future directions What needs further research?

5.3.5 Cohesion in Writing

Definition: Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical links within a text that connect
sentences and paragraphs. It is the surface-level connectivity of a text – the "glue" that holds
sentences together.

Why cohesion matters:

• It makes writing flow smoothly.

• It helps readers follow your ideas.
• It prevents abrupt jumps between sentences.
• It signals relationships between ideas.
Types of cohesive devices:

Type Definition Examples

Reference Using pronouns or "The student was late. He missed the
demonstratives to refer back to test."
something already mentioned
Substitution Replacing a word or phrase with "I need a red pen. Do you have one?"
a shorter form
Ellipsis Omitting words that are "She speaks English, and he does
understood from context [speaks English] too."
Conjunction Using connecting words to show "I was tired, so I slept. However, I
relationships woke up early."
Lexical Using synonyms, antonyms, "The doctor examined the patient.
cohesion repetition, or word families The physician recommended rest."

[Link] Reference (Detailed)

Reference uses pronouns or demonstratives to point back to (or forward to) something in the
text.

Type Examples How it creates cohesion

Personal I, you, he, she, it, we, they; me, Connects a pronoun to its
reference him, her, us, them; my, your, his, antecedent (the noun it
her, its, our, their replaces)
Demonstrative this, that, these, those; here, there, Points to something
reference then previously mentioned or
implied
Comparative same, similar, different, other, Creates links through
reference another, more, less, better comparison or contrast

Example of reference cohesion:

"A student was struggling with the assignment. He went to the lecturer for help. This was a
wise decision. Other students had simply given up, but he persisted."
• "He" refers back to "a student"
• "This" refers back to "went to the lecturer for help"
• "Other students" creates a comparison
• "He" again refers to the original student

Common errors with reference:

Error Example Correction

 Unclear "The teacher told the student that "The teacher told the student, 'You
reference he was wrong." (Who is "he"?) are wrong.'" OR "The teacher
admitted that he was wrong."
Distant "The theory was proposed in 1985. Use "this theory" or restate the noun
reference Many scholars have criticised it. for clarity after several sentences
However, the theory..."

[Link] Substitution (Detailed)

Substitution replaces a word or phrase with a shorter form (one, do, so, the same).

Type Examples How it creates cohesion

Nominal one, ones, the "I need a new pen. This one is old."
substitution same
Verbal substitution do, does, did, "She plays piano well, but
done he does better."
Clausal substitution so, not "Is it raining? I think so."

Example of substitution cohesion:

"Many students prefer group study. However, some find individual study more effective.
Those who prefer groups say they learn from peers, while those who study alone value
concentration. I am one of the latter."
• "Some" substitutes for "some students"
• "Those" and "the latter" substitute for groups of students

[Link] Ellipsis (Detailed)

An ellipsis omits words that can be inferred from the context.

Type Example Omitted words

Nominal ellipsis "I bought three apples. You bought five ___." (apples)
Verbal ellipsis "She can swim, and I can ___ too." (swim)
Clausal ellipsis "Who called? ___ John." (Called)

Example of ellipsis cohesion:

"Some students arrive on time. Others ___ late. The teacher praised those who were early and
ignored ___ who were not."
• "Others" is followed by an ellipsis of "arrive"
• The last clause omits "those" and "students"

[Link] Conjunction (Detailed)

Conjunctions show logical relationships between clauses, sentences, and paragraphs.

Type Logical relationship Examples

Additive Addition, similarity and, also, moreover, furthermore, in addition,
similarly, likewise
Adversative Contrast, concession but, however, although, nevertheless, on the
other hand, yet, whereas
Causal Cause and effect, so, because, therefore, thus, consequently,
reason, result hence, as a result
Temporal Time sequence, order then, next, after that, finally, subsequently,
meanwhile, first, second

Example of conjunction cohesion:

"First, students should read the assignment carefully. Then, they should outline their main
arguments. However, many students skip these steps. Therefore, their essays often lack
clarity. Furthermore, they may receive lower grades. Consequently, it is essential to teach
study skills early."

Transitional phrases for academic writing:

Purpose Transitional phrases

To add another point "In addition," "Moreover," "Furthermore," "Similarly"
To show contrast "However," "In contrast," "On the other hand," "Nevertheless"
To show cause/effect "Therefore," "Consequently," "As a result," "Thus"
To give an example "For example," "For instance," "Specifically," "To illustrate"
To conclude "In conclusion," "To summarise," "Ultimately," "In summary"
To sequence "Firstly," "Secondly," "Thirdly," "Finally," "Subsequently"

[Link] Lexical Cohesion (Detailed)

Lexical cohesion uses vocabulary to create connections.

Type Description Examples

Repetition Repeating the same "The theory is complex. This theory has many
word applications."
Synonymy Using a word with "The doctor examined the patient.
similar meaning The physician recommended rest."
Antonymy Using a word with "The rich and the poor both face challenges."
opposite meaning
 Hyponymy General term and "Animals such as dogs, cats, and goats are
specific term common livestock."
Meronymy Part-whole relationship "The house had a broken roof and
cracked walls."
Collocation Words that typically "strong coffee," "heavy rain," "make a
occur together decision"

Example of lexical cohesion:

"Communication is essential for academic success. Effective communication skills include

speaking, writing, and listening. These interpersonal skills help students interact with
lecturers. However, communication breakdowns often occur. Such misunderstandings can
lead to poor grades."
• Repetition of "communication"
• Synonym: "interpersonal skills"
• Antonym: "breakdowns" vs. "effective"
• Collocation: "academic success"

5.3.6 Coherence in Writing

Definition: Coherence refers to the logical flow and unity of ideas in a text. It is the deep-
level organisation of a text – whether the ideas make sense as a whole.

Difference between cohesion and coherence:

Aspect Cohesion Coherence

Level Surface level (words and grammar) Deep level (ideas and logic)
What it does Connects sentences using Ensures ideas are logical and
grammatical and lexical devices meaningful
How readers "Does the text flow smoothly?" "Does the text make sense?"
perceive it
Can exist without Yes (a text can be cohesive but Yes (a text can be coherent but
the other? incoherent) not very cohesive)

The classic example (cohesive but incoherent):

"I bought a new car. The car is red. Red is the colour of passion. Passion can lead to foolish
decisions. Decisions are hard to make."

This text is cohesive (uses repetition, reference) but incoherent (the ideas do not connect
logically).

A coherent paragraph:
"Effective communication is essential for academic success. First, students need to
understand lectures and assignment instructions. Without clear communication, they may
misunderstand expectations. Second, students must communicate with lecturers to ask
questions and seek feedback. Finally, students collaborate with peers on group projects,
which requires clear expression of ideas. Therefore, universities should provide
communication skills training."

Elements of coherence:

Element Description Example

Logical Ideas move from general to specific, Topic sentence → evidence →
progression from problem to solution, from cause to explanation → conclusion
effect
Clear topic Each paragraph states its main idea "Effective communication is
sentences essential for academic success."
Consistent focus All sentences in a paragraph relate to the No unrelated ideas
topic sentence
Logical Using conjunctions and transitions "First... Second... Finally...
connectors appropriately Therefore..."
Thematic Key themes are introduced, developed, Introducing "communication" and
development and revisited building on it

5.3.7 Achieving Cohesion and Coherence in Your Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide

Step 1: Plan your essay structure before writing.

Before writing During writing After writing

Create an outline Use topic sentences Check for logical flow
Group related ideas Use transition words Identify unclear references
Arrange ideas logically Repeat key terms Ensure each paragraph has one main idea

Step 2: Use the "Old-to-New" information flow.

Place known information at the beginning of a sentence and new information at the end.

Weak (new information first) Strong (old information first)

"A new theory has been proposed by "Smith (2020) proposed a new
Smith. This theory explains communication theory. This theory explains
barriers." communication barriers."

Step 3: Use transition words to signal relationships.

 Relationship Transition words
Adding a point Furthermore, Moreover, In addition
Contrasting However, Nevertheless, On the other hand
Giving an example For example, For instance, Specifically
Showing cause/effect Therefore, Consequently, As a result
Concluding In conclusion, To summarise, Ultimately

Step 4: Check reference clarity.

Unclear reference Clear reference

"The teacher told the student "The teacher admitted that he was wrong." OR "The
that he was wrong." teacher told the student, 'You are wrong.'"

Step 5: Read your work aloud.

Reading aloud helps you identify:

• Abrupt jumps between ideas (lack of coherence)

• Missing transition words (lack of cohesion)
• Unclear pronoun references

5.3.8 Common Problems with Cohesion and Coherence (and How to Fix Them)

Problem Example Correction

Abrupt jumps "Communication is important. Add a transition: "Because
The test is on Friday." communication is important, the
lecturer announced a test on Friday to
assess our understanding."
Overuse of "and "First, I woke up. And then I "First, I woke up. After eating
then" ate breakfast. And then I went breakfast, I went to school."
to school."
Unclear "Mutale told Bana that he was "Mutale told Bana, 'You are late.'"
reference late." OR "Mutale admitted that he was
late."
Repetition "The student studied. The "The student studied by reading the
without purpose student read the book. The book and taking notes."
student took notes."
No topic (Paragraph with no clear main Start each paragraph with a sentence
sentences idea) that states the main point.
 Multiple "Communication is important. Separate into multiple paragraphs,
unrelated ideas Zambia has many languages. each with one focus.
in one The economy is growing."
paragraph

5.3.9 Cohesion and Coherence Checklist for Essay Writing

Before submitting any academic essay, use this checklist:

Question Yes No
Does each paragraph have a clear topic sentence?
Does each paragraph focus on ONE main idea?
Are transition words used between paragraphs?
Are transition words used within paragraphs?
Are pronouns (he, she, it, they) clearly linked to their antecedents?
Is there a logical progression from introduction to conclusion?
Does the final sentence of each paragraph lead to the next?
Have I read my essay aloud to check for flow?
Would someone unfamiliar with my topic understand my argument?

5.4 Activities

Activity 5.1: Rewrite the following informal sentences in formal academic style:

• a) "This experiment didn't work out like we thought it would."

• b) "A lot of studies show that this method is pretty good."

Activity 5.2: Write an outline for a 1000-word essay on the topic: "The importance of
communication skills for university students." Include a thesis statement and three main body
paragraph topics.

Activity 5.3 (Cohesion): Identify the cohesive devices in the following paragraph. List each
device and name its type (reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, lexical cohesion).

"Many first-year students struggle with academic writing. They often lack the skills needed to
structure essays properly. However, these skills can be learned. One effective strategy is to
practise writing daily. Another is to seek feedback from lecturers. Those who do both tend to
improve faster. Consequently, universities should provide more writing support
programmes."

Activity 5.4 (Coherence): The following paragraph is cohesive but incoherent. Rewrite it to
make it coherent.
"I bought a new laptop. The laptop is blue. Blue is my favourite colour. Colour affects mood.
Mood influences learning. Learning requires concentration. Concentration is hard with
distractions."

Activity 5.5 (Cohesion and Coherence): Improve the following paragraph by adding
transition words, clarifying references, and organising ideas logically.

"Students need good communication skills. Communication helps in lectures. It helps with
assignments. Students talk to lecturers. They ask questions. Some students are shy. They do
not ask for help. Their grades suffer. Study groups are helpful. Students learn from each
other."

Activity 5.6: Write a well-structured paragraph (150-200 words) on the topic "The benefits of
group study." Use at least three different cohesive devices and ensure coherence through
logical organisation.

5.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

SAQ 5.1: What is the difference between basic literacy and academic literacy?

SAQ 5.2: List three features of academic writing.

SAQ 5.3: What is hedging in academic writing? Give an example.

SAQ 5.4: What are the three main parts of an academic essay?

SAQ 5.5: What is the difference between cohesion and coherence?

SAQ 5.6: Name three types of cohesive devices with examples.

SAQ 5.7: Why is it possible to have a cohesive but incoherent text? Give an example.

SAQ 5.8: What are transition words? Give three examples and explain the relationship they
signal.

5.6 Feedback to SAQs

Feedback 5.1: Basic literacy enables a person to function in daily life (reading signs, writing
notes). Academic literacy enables a person to succeed in university (reading journal articles,
writing research papers, thinking critically).

Feedback 5.2: Any three from: formal tone, objectivity, precision, evidence-based,
referencing, hedging, clear structure, cohesive and coherent.

Feedback 5.3: Hedging is using cautious language to avoid making absolute claims.
Example: "This suggests that..." instead of "This proves that..."

Feedback 5.4: Introduction, body paragraphs, conclusion.

Feedback 5.5: Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical links within a text (surface
level). Coherence refers to the logical flow and unity of ideas (deep level). Cohesion is about
how sentences connect; coherence is about whether the ideas make sense as a whole.

Feedback 5.6: Any three from: reference (pronouns), substitution (one, do, so), ellipsis
(omitting understood words), conjunction (transition words), lexical cohesion (repetition,
synonyms).

Feedback 5.7: A text can use cohesive devices (reference, repetition, conjunctions) but still
lack logical connection between ideas. Example: "I bought a new car. The car is red. Red is
the colour of passion. Passion can lead to foolish decisions." (Cohesive but incoherent)

Feedback 5.8: Transition words are connecting words that show relationships between ideas.
Examples: "However" (contrast), "Therefore" (cause/effect), "Furthermore" (addition), "For
example" (illustration), "First" (sequence).

5.7 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) for Unit 5

Due: End of Week 6

Instructions:

Write an academic essay of 800-1000 words (approximately 3-4 handwritten pages) on the
following topic:

"Discuss the importance of communication skills for university students."

Your essay must include:

• A clear introduction with a thesis statement

• At least three body paragraphs with topic sentences
• A conclusion
• Formal academic style (no contractions, no slang)
• Correct paragraph structure
• At least five different cohesive devices (identify them in parentheses after each
use)
• Clear coherence (logical progression of ideas from introduction to conclusion)

Marking rubric:

Criteria Marks
Introduction (hook, background, thesis, roadmap) 5
Body paragraphs (topic sentences, evidence, explanation) 10
Conclusion (restate thesis, summarise, implications) 5
Cohesion (appropriate use of cohesive devices) 10
Coherence (logical flow and organisation) 10
Academic style and grammar 5
Referencing (if used) 5
Total 50
UNIT 6: INFORMATION LITERACY

6.1 Introduction

Information literacy is the ability to find, evaluate, and use information effectively and
ethically. This unit is essential for research, essay writing, and lifelong learning.

6.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define information literacy and explain its importance.

2. Identify different types of information sources (primary, secondary, tertiary).
3. Evaluate sources for credibility (CRAAP test).
4. Use information ethically (avoid plagiarism).

6.3 Core Content

6.3.1 What is Information Literacy?

Definition: Information literacy is the ability to recognise when information is needed and to
locate, evaluate, and use that information effectively and ethically.

Why information literacy matters:

Reason Explanation
Academic success Essays require credible sources
Avoiding misinformation Not everything on the internet is true
Time efficiency Knowing where to search saves time
Ethical scholarship Proper use of sources avoids plagiarism

6.3.2 Types of Information Sources

By originality (primary, secondary, tertiary):

Type Definition Example

 Primary source Original, first-hand evidence Research study, diary,
interview

Secondary Analyses or summarises primary Literature review, textbook

source sources

Tertiary source Compiles and summarises secondary Encyclopedia, bibliography

sources

6.3.3 Evaluating Sources: The CRAAP Test

Criterion Questions to ask

Currency When was it published? Is it up to date?
Relevance Does it relate to your topic? Is it appropriate for university?
Authority Who is the author? What are their credentials?
Accuracy Where does the information come from? Are there references?
Purpose Why was it written? To inform? To persuade? Is there bias?

6.3.4 Using Information Ethically: Avoiding Plagiarism

What is plagiarism? Using someone else's words, ideas, or work without giving proper
credit.

Types of plagiarism:

Type Description Example

Direct plagiarism Copying word-for-word without Copying a paragraph from a
citation website
Patchwriting Changing a few words but keeping Changing "however" to
sentence structure "nevertheless"
Paraphrasing Paraphrasing without citing the source Restating an idea without
plagiarism credit
Self-plagiarism Submitting your own previous work Using the same essay for two
courses

How to avoid plagiarism:

Strategy How to do it
 Take good notes Clearly mark quotes and your own ideas
Cite as you write Add citations immediately
Paraphrase properly Read, understand, then write in your own words
Quote sparingly Use quotes only when wording is important

What does NOT need to be cited?

• Common knowledge ("The sun rises in the east")

• Widely known facts ("Zambia gained independence in 1964")
• Your own original ideas
• Your own lived experiences

6.4 Activities

Activity 6.1: Apply the CRAAP test to a website of your choice. Score each criterion (1-5)
and write a paragraph evaluating the source's credibility.

Activity 6.2: Identify the type of plagiarism in each scenario:

• a) A student copies a paragraph, changes "however" to "nevertheless," and submits it.

• b) A student paraphrases an idea without citing the source.
• c) A student submits the same essay for two different courses.

Activity 6.3: Paraphrase the following passage correctly:

Original: "Effective communication between lecturers and students is essential for academic
success. When lecturers provide clear instructions, students can complete assignments
correctly." (Smith, 2020, p. 45)

6.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

SAQ 6.1: What is information literacy?

SAQ 6.2: What is the difference between a primary source and a secondary source?

SAQ 6.3: What does the CRAAP test stand for?

SAQ 6.4: Why should you avoid using Wikipedia as a cited source?

SAQ 6.5: What is patchwriting? Why is it considered plagiarism?

6.6 Feedback to SAQs

Feedback 6.1: Information literacy is the ability to recognise when information is needed and
to locate, evaluate, and use that information effectively and ethically.
Feedback 6.2: A primary source is original, first-hand evidence (e.g., a research study). A
secondary source analyses or summarises primary sources.

Feedback 6.3: CRAAP stands for Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, Purpose.

Feedback 6.4: Wikipedia is written by anonymous editors and may contain errors. It is
acceptable for background information but should not be cited directly.

Feedback 6.5: Patchwriting is changing a few words but keeping the original sentence
structure. It is plagiarism because it is not truly paraphrasing and often does not cite the
source.

6.7 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) for Unit 6

Due: End of Week 7

Instructions:

Find one source on a topic related to your field of study. Apply the CRAAP test in a 1-page
evaluation. For each criterion, write 2-3 sentences evaluating the source. Then give an overall
verdict (use / use with caution / do not use) and justify.

Total marks: 25
UNIT 7: REFERENCING (APA STYLE)

7.1 Introduction

Referencing is the practice of acknowledging the sources you use in your academic work.
APA (American Psychological Association) style is the most common referencing system in
education and social sciences.

7.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain why referencing is important.

2. Create in-text citations for paraphrases and direct quotes.
3. Format a reference list in APA 7th edition style.
4. Cite different types of sources (books, journal articles, websites).

7.3 Core Content

7.3.1 Why Reference?

Reason Explanation
Avoid plagiarism Giving credit to original authors
Show evidence Demonstrate that you have read the research
Help readers Allow readers to locate your sources
Build credibility Show that your arguments are based on research

7.3.2 Two Parts of APA Referencing

Part Location Purpose Example

In-text Within the Indicates where you used a (Smith, 2020)
citation body source
Reference At the end Provides full details of Smith, J. (2020). Title.
list every source Publisher.

7.3.3 In-Text Citations

Paraphrase:

Format Example
Author named in sentence Smith (2020) argues that communication is key.
Author not named in sentence Communication is key (Smith, 2020) .

Direct quote:

Format Example

Author named in sentence Smith (2020) stated, "Communication is key" (p.

45).
Author not named in "Communication is key" (Smith, 2020, p. 45) .
sentence

Special cases:

Source type Format Example

One author (Author, year) (Banda, 2019)
Two authors (Author & Author, year) (Banda & Mwansa, 2019)
Three+ authors (First author et al., year) (Banda et al., 2019)
No author (Title, year) ("Communication Skills," 2020)
No date (Author, n.d.) (Banda, n.d.)

7.3.4 Reference List

General rules:

• Title: "References" (centred, bold)

• Order: Alphabetical by first author's last name
• Indent: Hanging indent

Common source types:

Source Formula Example

Book (one Author, A. (Year). Title. Banda, M. (2019). Teaching reading.
author) Publisher. University of Zambia Press.
Book (two Author, A., & Author, Banda, M., & Mwansa, C.
authors) B. (Year). Title. (2020). Communication skills. Pearson.
Publisher.
 Journal Author, A. (Year). Chanda, L. (2021). Early grade
article Title. Journal, reading. Zambia Journal of Education,
volume(issue), pages. 15(2), 23-35.
DOI
Website Author, A. (Year, Ministry of Education. (2023, Jan
Date). Title. Site. URL 15). Curriculum
reform. [Link]

7.4 Activities

Activity 7.1: Create an in-text citation for each source (paraphrase):

• a) A book by J. Phiri published in 2018.

• b) A journal article by L. Chanda and K. Mulenga published in 2021.

Activity 7.2: Create a reference list entry for each source:

• a) A book: "Communication for Teachers" by M. Banda, published by Pearson in

2020.
• b) A journal article: "Reading Comprehension" by C. Mwansa, in the Zambia Journal
of Education, volume 18, issue 3, pages 45-58, 2022.

Activity 7.3: Correct the errors in the following reference list entries:

• a) Banda, Mwansa, C. (2020). Communication skills. Lusaka: University Press.

• b) Chanda L. (2022). Teaching reading. Zambia Journal of Education. 17(1): 12-20.

7.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

SAQ 7.1: What is the difference between an in-text citation and a reference list?

SAQ 7.2: How do you cite a source with three authors?

SAQ 7.3: When do you need to include a page number in an in-text citation?

SAQ 7.4: What is a DOI?

SAQ 7.5: How do you order sources in a reference list?

7.6 Feedback to SAQs

Feedback 7.1: An in-text citation appears within the body of the essay to indicate where a
source has been used. A reference list appears at the end and provides full publication details.
Feedback 7.2: For three or more authors, cite only the first author followed by "et al."
Example: (Banda et al., 2021).

Feedback 7.3: Include a page number when you are using a direct quote. Example: (Smith,
2020, p. 45).

Feedback 7.4: A DOI (Digital Object Identifier) is a unique identifier for a digital object
(usually a journal article).

Feedback 7.5: Sources are ordered alphabetically by the first author's last name.

7.7 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) for Unit 7

Due: End of Week 8

Instructions:

Create a reference list with the following five sources. Order them alphabetically and format
each correctly in APA 7th edition.

• Source 1: A book titled "Teaching Communication Skills" by M. Banda. Published by

University of Zambia Press in 2021.
• Source 2: A journal article by C. Mwansa and K. Mulenga (2022) titled "Language
Policy in Zambian Schools." Zambia Journal of Education, volume 19, issue 1, pages
12-28.
• Source 3: A website page titled "Curriculum Framework" from the Ministry of
Education. Published March 15, 2023. URL: [Link]
• Source 4: A book chapter by J. Phiri (2020) titled "Reading Instruction." In a book
edited by L. Chanda called "Early Childhood Education in Zambia" (pages 45-67).
Published by Pearson.
• Source 5: A journal article by A. Smith (2019) titled "Classroom Communication."
Journal of Educational Studies, volume 8, issue 2, pages 88-102.

Total marks: 25

UNIT 8: PUNCTUATION AND MECHANICS OF WRITING

8.1 Introduction

Punctuation marks are the traffic signs of writing. Correct punctuation makes your writing
clear, professional, and easy to read. This unit covers common punctuation marks and
mechanics of writing.
8.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Use full stops, commas, question marks, and exclamation marks correctly.
2. Use apostrophes for possession and contractions.
3. Use quotation marks for direct speech and quotations.
4. Apply correct spelling, capitalisation, and number conventions.

8.3 Core Content

8.3.1 The Full Stop (Period)

Use Example
End a declarative sentence "The cat sat on the mat."
End an imperative sentence "Please close the door."
Abbreviations (in some styles) "e.g.," "i.e.," "etc."

8.3.2 The Comma

Use Example
Separate items in a list "I bought apples, bananas, and oranges."
After an introductory phrase "After the rain stopped, we went outside."
Before a conjunction (FANBOYS) "I wanted to go, but I was too tired."
Around non-essential information "My brother, who lives in Lusaka, is a teacher."
After a transition word "However, the results were inconclusive."

Common comma errors:

Error Example Correction

Comma splice "I went to the shop, I bought "I went to the shop. I bought
bread." bread."
Missing comma after "After eating the dog went for a "After eating, the dog went for a
intro walk." walk."

8.3.3 The Apostrophe

Use Example
 Possession (singular) "The teacher's book" (one teacher)
Possession (plural ending in s) "The teachers' books" (multiple teachers)
Possession (plural not ending in s) "The children's toys"
Contractions "don't" (do not), "it's" (it is)

Common apostrophe errors:

Error Correction
"Its a nice day." "It's a nice day." (it is)
"The student's are here." "The students are here." (no possession)
"Who's bag is this?" "Whose bag is this?"

8.3.4 Quotation Marks

Use Example
Direct speech "I am tired," she said.
Quotations from sources As Smith (2020) states, "Communication is key."
Titles of short works "The Road Not Taken" (poem)

Punctuation with quotation marks (APA style):

• Periods and commas go INSIDE quotation marks

• Question marks go INSIDE if part of the quote

8.3.5 Spelling

Common spelling errors:

Common error Correct Strategy

Receive receive "i before e except after c"
Separate separate There is "a rat" in separate.
Definitely definitely Definitely has "finite" in it.
Accommodate accommodate Double c, double m.

Common homophones:

Homophone Meanings Example

their / there / belonging to them / place / "They're taking their books over
they're they are there."
 your / you're belonging to you / you are "You're bringing your own lunch."
its / it's belonging to it / it is "It's a dog wagging its tail."
to / too / two towards / also / number "I went to the shop too, and I bought
two apples."

8.3.6 Capitalisation

When to use capital letters:

• First word of a sentence

• Proper nouns (Zambia, Lusaka, Dr. Banda)
• Days, months, holidays (Monday, January)
• The pronoun "I"

When NOT to use capital letters:

• Seasons (autumn, winter)

• Common nouns (university, not "University" unless part of a name)

8.3.7 Numbers (APA style)

Rule Example
Numbers zero to nine: use words "five students"
Numbers 10 and above: use digits "15 students"
Beginning of a sentence: use words "Fifty students attended."
Percentages: use digits + % "15%"
Dates: use digits "January 15, 2024"

8.4 Activities

Activity 8.1: Add the missing punctuation to the following sentences:

• a) The students books were left on the table

• b) Its a beautiful day isnt it
• c) I bought rice beans tomatoes and onions
• d) After the lecture the students went to the library

Activity 8.2: Correct the apostrophe errors:

• a) The dog wagged it's tail.

• b) The childrens uniforms were dirty.
• c) Whose coming to the party?
Activity 8.3: Correct the spelling errors:

• a) The definate answer is not clear.

• b) She recieved a seperate letter.
• c) The goverment announced a new policy.

8.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

SAQ 8.1: What is a comma splice? How do you fix it?

SAQ 8.2: What is the difference between "its" and "it's"?

SAQ 8.3: Where does the comma go in a list?

SAQ 8.4: When do you use digits instead of words for numbers in APA style?

SAQ 8.5: What is the difference between "their," "there," and "they're"?

8.6 Feedback to SAQs

Feedback 8.1: A comma splice is when two independent clauses are joined only by a comma
(e.g., "I went to the shop, I bought bread."). Fix by changing the comma to a full stop or
semicolon, or adding a conjunction.

Feedback 8.2: "Its" (no apostrophe) means belonging to it (e.g., "The dog wagged its tail").
"It's" (with apostrophe) is a contraction for "it is" or "it has" (e.g., "It's a nice day").

Feedback 8.3: Commas separate items in a list of three or more items. Example: "I bought
apples, bananas, and oranges."

Feedback 8.4: Use digits for numbers 10 and above (e.g., 15 students). Use words for
numbers zero to nine (e.g., five students).

Feedback 8.5: "Their" means belonging to them. "There" indicates a place. "They're" is a
contraction for "they are."

8.7 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) for Unit 8

Due: End of Week 9

Instructions:

Correct the punctuation, spelling, capitalisation, and number errors in the following
paragraph. Rewrite the paragraph with correct mechanics.

"the study involved 5 groups of students. Each group had 10 participants. The researcher
asked them to complete a survey about there study habits. The results showed that 60% of
students preffered studying at home. 25% preffered the library. 15% studied in groups.
According to the researcher the results were consistant with previous studies. however she
noted that the sample was small. she said its important to replicate the study with a larger
group."

Total marks: 20
UNIT 9: VISUAL COMMUNICATION

9.1 Introduction

Visual communication is the use of images, graphics, charts, and layout to convey
information. This unit covers how to design effective visuals for presentations and reports.

9.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Identify different types of visuals (tables, charts, diagrams).

2. Design effective visuals using principles of simplicity and clarity.
3. Integrate visuals with text.
4. Create effective presentation slides.

9.3 Core Content

9.3.1 What is Visual Communication?

Definition: Visual communication is the use of images, graphics, charts, diagrams, and layout
to convey information.

Why visual communication matters:

Reason Explanation
Clarity A chart can show what a paragraph cannot
Memory People remember visuals better than text
Engagement Visuals capture attention
Efficiency A well-designed visual conveys information quickly

9.3.2 Types of Visuals

Type Use Example

 Table Presenting precise numerical data Test scores by class

Bar chart Comparing categories Comparing scores across grades

Line graph Showing trends over time Literacy rates from 2010 to 2024

Pie chart Showing parts of a whole Proportion of languages spoken

Flowchart Showing processes or sequences The communication process

Venn diagram Showing overlaps Comparing two theories

9.3.3 Designing Effective Visuals: Principles

Principle Explanation Example

Simplicity Remove unnecessary elements No 3D effects on bar charts
Clarity Labels are readable, colours Black text on white background
distinct
Consistency Same style across all visuals Same font, colours, size
Relevance Every visual has a purpose Do not add a chart just for
decoration
Integration Visuals are discussed in the text "As Figure 1 shows..."

9.3.4 Integrating Visuals with Text

Rule Example
Introduce the visual before showing it "Table 1 presents the results of the
survey."
Place the visual near the text that Do not put a visual pages away
discusses it
Caption each visual "Figure 1: The communication process"
Explain the visual Do not assume readers will interpret it
correctly
Cite the source of the visual "Adapted from Smith (2020)"
9.3.5 Visual Communication in Presentations (PowerPoint/Google Slides)

Guidelines for effective slide design:

Do Don't
Use bullet points (3-5 per slide) Put full paragraphs on slides
Use large font (24pt+ headings, 18pt+ body) Use tiny font
Use high-contrast colours Use low contrast (yellow on white)
Use images that support the message Use irrelevant clip art
Limit transitions and animations Use distracting animations

The 5x5 rule:

• Maximum 5 bullet points per slide

• Maximum 5 words per bullet point

9.4 Activities

Activity 9.1: For each type of visual, describe a situation where you would use it:

• a) Bar chart
• b) Line graph
• c) Pie chart
• d) Flowchart

Activity 9.2: Design a simple slide (draw it on paper) for a 5-minute presentation on "Three
study skills for university students." Include a title, 3 bullet points (max 5 words each), and
one simple image.

9.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

SAQ 9.1: What is visual communication?

SAQ 9.2: When would you use a line graph instead of a bar chart?

SAQ 9.3: What is the 5x5 rule for PowerPoint slides?

SAQ 9.4: Why should you introduce a visual before showing it?

SAQ 9.5: What is the difference between a table and a chart?

9.6 Feedback to SAQs

Feedback 9.1: Visual communication is the use of images, graphics, charts, and layout to
convey information.

Feedback 9.2: Use a line graph to show trends over time (e.g., literacy rates from 2010 to
2024). Use a bar chart to compare categories at a single point in time.

Feedback 9.3: The 5x5 rule is a guideline: maximum 5 bullet points per slide, maximum 5
words per bullet point.

Feedback 9.4: Introducing a visual before showing it prepares the reader to understand what
they are about to see and integrates the visual with the text.

Feedback 9.5: A table presents precise numerical data in rows and columns. A chart (bar
chart, line graph, pie chart) presents data visually to show patterns, trends, or proportions.

9.7 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) for Unit 9

Due: End of Week 10

Instructions:

Design a simple bar chart (draw it) showing the following data:

• Number of students by year: Year 1: 150, Year 2: 145, Year 3: 140, Year 4: 130

Label your chart clearly (title, x-axis, y-axis, bars). Then write a caption (Figure 1) that
explains what the chart shows.

Total marks: 15

UNIT 10: STUDY SKILLS

10.1 Introduction

Study skills are the techniques and strategies that help you learn effectively. This unit
provides practical, evidence-based study skills for academic success.

10.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Manage your time effectively using a study schedule.

2. Take effective notes in lectures and from readings.
 3. Apply active reading strategies (SQ3R).
4. Use memory techniques to improve recall.
5. Prepare for and take exams effectively.

10.3 Core Content

10.3.1 Time Management

Key strategies:

Strategy How to do it
Weekly schedule Block out fixed commitments; schedule study time
To-do list Write down tasks; prioritise (A, B, C)
Pomodoro Technique Study 25 minutes, then 5-minute break
Eat the frog Do the hardest task first

10.3.2 Note-Taking: The Cornell Method

text
┌─────────────────────────────────────┬──────────────
───────────────────┐
│ CUES (key words, │ NOTES │
│ questions) │ (main ideas, │
│ (Write after lecture) │ details) │
│ │ (Write during lecture) │
├─────────────────────────────────────┴──────────────
───────────────────┤
│ SUMMARY (2-3 sentences) │
└────────────────────────────────────────────────────
───────────────────┘

10.3.3 Active Reading: The SQ3R Method

Step Meaning What to do

S Survey Scan headings, introduction, conclusion
Q Question Turn headings into questions
R Read Read actively, looking for answers
R Recite After each section, recite answers
 R Review Review the entire chapter

10.3.4 Memory Techniques

Technique How to do it Why it works

Spaced Review at increasing intervals Combats forgetting curve
repetition
Active recall Test yourself (do not just re- Retrieval strengthens memory
read)
Elaboration Explain in your own words Creates multiple memory
pathways
Mnemonics Acronyms, acrostics, rhymes Makes abstract information
concrete
Chunking Group information into chunks Overcomes working memory
limits

The Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus):

• You forget 50% within an hour, 80% within a day

• Implication: Review within 24 hours

10.3.5 Preparing for Exams

Long-term preparation:

• Attend all classes

• Take good notes
• Study regularly (1-2 hours per day per course)
• Review notes weekly

Short-term preparation (1-2 weeks before exam):

• Create a study schedule

• Create summary notes (1-2 pages per topic)
• Use active recall
• Practise past exams

Exam day strategies:

• Sleep well (7-8 hours)

• Eat breakfast
• Arrive early
• Read all instructions
• Budget your time
 • Answer easy questions first
• Review your answers

10.4 Activities

Activity 10.1: Create a weekly study schedule for yourself. Include fixed commitments and
study time for each course.

Activity 10.2: Using the Cornell method, take notes on a 10-minute section of a lecture (you
can use a video online or imagine a lecture).

Activity 10.3: Create a mnemonic to remember the following list: communication barriers
(physical, psychological, semantic, cultural, organisational).

Activity 10.4: Write a short reflection on your current study habits. What are your strengths?
What do you need to improve?

10.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

SAQ 10.1: What is the Pomodoro Technique?

SAQ 10.2: What are the five steps of the SQ3R method?

SAQ 10.3: Why is active recall more effective than re-reading?

SAQ 10.4: What is the forgetting curve? What should you do about it?

SAQ 10.5: What is the Cornell method of note-taking?

10.6 Feedback to SAQs

Feedback 10.1: The Pomodoro Technique is studying for 25 minutes, then taking a 5-minute
break.

Feedback 10.2: SQ3R stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review.

Feedback 10.3: Re-reading is passive; you may recognise the material but not be able to
recall it. Active recall forces your brain to retrieve information, strengthening memory.

Feedback 10.4: The forgetting curve shows we forget rapidly after learning. Review notes
within 24 hours to prevent rapid forgetting.

Feedback 10.5: The Cornell method divides the page into cues (left), notes (right), and
summary (bottom).

10.7 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) for Unit 10

Due: End of Week 11

Instructions:

Create a one-week study schedule for yourself. Then write a 1-page reflection answering:

• What challenges will you face in following this schedule?

• How will you overcome them?
• Which two study skills from this unit will be most useful for you? Why?

Total marks: 25
UNIT 11: TYPES OF ACADEMIC AND SCIENTIFIC WRITING

11.1 Introduction

Academic and scientific writing encompasses many different genres, each with its own
purpose, structure, and audience. As a university student, you will encounter and need to
produce various types of academic and scientific texts. This unit provides a comprehensive
overview of the most common types.

11.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish between different types of academic and scientific writing.

2. Identify the purpose and structure of each type.
3. Produce abstracts, research proposals, and literature reviews.
4. Write lab reports, case studies, and annotated bibliographies.

11.3 Core Content

11.3.1 Overview of Academic and Scientific Writing Genres

Genre Purpose Typical length Common in

disciplines
Essay Argue a position 1,000-5,000 All disciplines
words
Abstract Summarise a longer work 150-300 words All disciplines
Research proposal Propose a research study 1,500-3,000 Sciences, social
words sciences
Research article Report original research 3,000-8,000 All disciplines
words
Literature review Summarise existing 2,000-5,000 All disciplines
research words
Lab report Report experiment results 1,000-2,500 Sciences
words
Case study Analyse a specific case 1,500-3,000 Social sciences,
words education
 Annotated Summarise and evaluate Variable All disciplines
bibliography sources

11.3.2 The Abstract

Definition: An abstract is a concise summary of a longer work.

Structure of an informative abstract (IMRaD format):

Section What to include Example

Background Why was the study "Effective communication is essential for
done? academic success."
Methods How was the study "A survey of 200 first-year students was
conducted? conducted."
Results What were the main "65% of students identified language
findings? differences as a barrier."
Conclusion What do the findings "Universities should provide communication
mean? support programmes."
Keywords 3-6 key terms "Keywords: communication, barriers, first-
year students"

11.3.3 The Research Proposal

Structure of a research proposal:

Section Purpose
Title Describe the research clearly
Introduction Set the context; state the problem
Literature review Show what is already known
Methodology Explain how you will conduct the research
Ethical considerations Show how you will protect participants
References Cite sources used

11.3.4 The Literature Review

Definition: A literature review is a critical summary and synthesis of existing research.

Structure of a literature review:

 Section Purpose
Introduction Define the topic and scope
Thematic body paragraphs Organise by theme, not by author
Synthesis Compare and contrast studies
Gap identification Show what is missing
Conclusion Summarise and justify your research

11.3.5 The Lab Report

Structure of a lab report (IMRaD):

Section Purpose
Title Describe the experiment
Abstract Summarise the entire report
Introduction Provide background and hypothesis
Methods Describe exactly what you did
Results Present the findings (no interpretation)
Discussion Interpret the findings
Conclusion Summarise main findings
References Cite sources

11.3.6 The Case Study

Structure of a case study:

Section Purpose
Introduction Introduce the case
Background Provide context
Presentation of case Describe the case in detail
Analysis Interpret the case
Recommendations Suggest actions
Conclusion Summarise key insights

11.3.7 The Annotated Bibliography

Structure of an annotated bibliography entry:

 Component What to include
Citation Full APA reference
Summary 2-3 sentences summarising the source
Evaluation 1-2 sentences evaluating credibility
Reflection 1-2 sentences on usefulness

11.4 Activities

Activity 11.1: Write an informative abstract (200-250 words) for a research study you would
like to conduct.

Activity 11.2: Write a research proposal outline for a study on "Communication barriers
among first-year university students."

Activity 11.3: Create an annotated bibliography entry for one source you have used.

11.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

SAQ 11.1: What is the difference between a descriptive abstract and an informative abstract?

SAQ 11.2: What are the five main sections of a research proposal?

SAQ 11.3: What is the purpose of a literature review?

SAQ 11.4: What does IMRaD stand for?

SAQ 11.5: What is the difference between results and discussion in a lab report?

11.6 Feedback to SAQs

Feedback 11.1: A descriptive abstract describes what the work covers but does not include
findings. An informative abstract summarises purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions.

Feedback 11.2: Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Ethical Considerations,

References.

Feedback 11.3: A literature review synthesises existing research to identify patterns, debates,
and gaps.

Feedback 11.4: IMRaD stands for Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion.

Feedback 11.5: Results present findings objectively; discussion interprets the findings and
explains what they mean.
11.7 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) for Unit 11

Due: End of Week 12

Instructions:

Write an informative abstract (200-250 words) for a research study on a topic of your choice.
Include Background, Methods, Results (projected), Conclusion, and Keywords.

Total marks: 15
UNIT 12: PRESENTATION SKILLS

12.1 Introduction

Oral presentations are a common requirement in university courses and professional settings.
Whether you are presenting a research paper, a group project, or a proposal, the ability to
deliver an effective presentation is a critical skill. This unit covers planning, preparing,
delivering, and evaluating oral presentations.

12.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Plan and structure an effective oral presentation.

2. Design and use presentation aids (PowerPoint, handouts, props) effectively.
3. Manage presentation anxiety and build confidence.
4. Deliver a presentation with appropriate vocal and non-verbal techniques.
5. Handle questions from the audience effectively.
6. Evaluate your own and others' presentations.

12.3 Core Content

12.3.1 What is a Presentation?

Definition: A presentation is a structured oral delivery of information to an audience for a

specific purpose.

Types of presentations in academic settings:

Type Purpose Example Typical

length
Informative To share information Presenting research 10-20
presentation findings minutes
Persuasive To convince the Proposing a solution 10-20
presentation audience minutes
Instructional To teach a skill Demonstrating how to use 15-30
presentation software minutes
 Group presentation Collaborative Team project presentation 15-30
presentation minutes
Conference Formal presentation to Presenting a research paper 15-20
presentation peers minutes

12.3.2 Planning a Presentation: The 5 Ps

Stage What to do Questions to ask

Purpose Define the goal What do I want the audience to know, feel, or
do?
People Analyse your audience Who are they? What do they already know?
Place Understand the venue How large is the room? What equipment is
available?
Preparation Research and organise How will I structure it?
content
Practice Rehearse the delivery How will I practice?

12.3.3 Structuring a Presentation

The Beginning (10-15% of time):

Component What to include Example

Attention-getter Hook the audience A startling statistic, a question, a story
Welcome and Introduce yourself "Good morning. My name is Mutale
introduction Banda."
Purpose statement State your topic "Today I will discuss communication
barriers."
Roadmap Outline your structure "I will cover three main areas: first...
second... third..."
Relevance statement Why the audience "Understanding these barriers can help
should care you succeed."

The Middle (70-80% of time):

Component What to include

Main points 3-5 key ideas
Supporting evidence Facts, examples, statistics, quotes, visuals
 Transitions Connect one point to the next
Signposting Indicate where you are in the presentation

The Ending (10-15% of time):

Component What to include

Summary Restate your main points
Restate purpose Remind audience of your goal
Call to action Tell audience what to do
Closing statement End strongly
Q&A invitation Invite questions

12.3.4 Using Presentation Aids

Types of presentation aids:

Type Best for... Advantages Disadvantages

PowerPoint/Google Most presentations Visual, organised Can be overused
Slides
Handouts Detailed Audience keeps Can distract
information information
Whiteboard/Flip chart Brainstorming, Interactive Not for large
diagrams audiences
Props/objects Demonstrations Memorable May not be visible

Guidelines for effective PowerPoint slides:

Do Don't
Use large font (24pt+ headings, 18pt+ body) Use tiny font
Use bullet points (3-5 per slide) Put full paragraphs on slides
Use high-contrast colours Use low contrast
Use one main idea per slide Cram too much information
Proofread for spelling errors Have typos

The 5x5 rule for slides:

• Maximum 5 bullet points per slide

• Maximum 5 words per bullet point
12.3.5 Vocal Delivery Techniques

Technique What to do Why it matters

Volume Speak loudly enough Audibility
Pace Speak at a moderate speed Clarity
Pitch Vary your pitch Engagement
Pauses Pause between main points Emphasis
Articulation Pronounce words clearly Understanding
Enthusiasm Show energy Engagement
Fillers Avoid "um," "uh" Professionalism

12.3.6 Non-Verbal Delivery Techniques

Technique What to do Why it matters

Eye contact Look at the audience (3-5 seconds per Connection,
person) credibility
Posture Stand up straight Confidence
Gestures Use natural hand gestures Engagement
Movement Move purposefully Energy
Facial Show appropriate emotion Authenticity
expressions
Appearance Dress appropriately Credibility

12.3.7 Managing Presentation Anxiety

Common symptoms of presentation anxiety:

Physical Mental/Emotional
Rapid heartbeat Fear of forgetting
Sweaty palms Worry about being judged
Shaking hands Negative self-talk
Dry mouth Feeling of dread

Strategies to manage anxiety before the presentation:

Strategy How to do it
Prepare thoroughly Know your content inside and out
 Practice repeatedly Rehearse aloud, in front of a mirror
Visit the room beforehand Familiarise yourself with the space
Use relaxation techniques Deep breathing (inhale 4, hold 4, exhale 4)
Visualise success Imagine yourself delivering confidently
Arrive early Set up equipment
Accept nervousness as normal Adrenaline can improve performance

12.3.8 Handling Questions from the Audience

How to handle questions effectively:

Step What to do Example

1 Listen carefully Do not interrupt
2 Repeat or rephrase "So you are asking whether..."
3 Answer concisely Answer directly
4 Check understanding "Does that answer your question?"

What to do if you don't know the answer:

Response Example
Be honest "I do not have the answer right now."
Offer to find out "I will research that and get back to you."
Invite audience input "Does anyone in the audience have experience with that?"

12.3.9 Group Presentations

Challenges of group presentations:

Challenge Solution
Uneven contribution Assign clear roles and deadlines
Inconsistent style Agree on a consistent format
Transitions between speakers Plan and practise transitions
Time management Time each section; designate a timekeeper

Roles in a group presentation:

Role Responsibility
Introduction speaker Opens the presentation, introduces the team
Content speakers Each presents one section
 Conclusion speaker Summarises and closes
Q&A coordinator Manages the question-and-answer session

12.3.10 Evaluating Presentations

Self-evaluation questions after a presentation:

Area Questions to ask yourself

Content Did I cover all my main points?
Structure Did I have a clear beginning, middle, and end?
Delivery Did I speak clearly and maintain eye contact?
Visual aids Were my slides clear and helpful?
Time Did I finish within the time limit?
Q&A Did I handle questions well?

Peer evaluation criteria:

Criterion Excellent (3) Satisfactory (2) Needs improvement

(1)
Opening Strong attention-getter Adequate Weak or missing
Structure Clear organisation Mostly Disorganised
organised
Content Accurate, well- Mostly accurate Inaccurate
supported
Vocal delivery Clear, varied pace Mostly clear Mumbling, monotone
Non-verbal Eye contact, gestures Some eye No eye contact
delivery contact
Visual aids Clear, helpful Adequate Confusing
Conclusion Strong summary Adequate Weak or missing
Q&A Handled questions well Adequate Struggled

12.4 Activities

Activity 12.1: Plan a 5-minute presentation on a topic of your choice. Write a one-page plan
including purpose, audience analysis, main points, attention-getter, and conclusion.

Activity 12.2: Create a 5-slide PowerPoint (or describe the slides) for your presentation.
Apply the 5x5 rule.
Activity 12.3: Practise delivering a 2-minute segment of your presentation. Record yourself
or present to a friend. Write a short reflection on what went well and what you will improve.

Activity 12.4: Write a script for a 30-second introduction to a presentation on "The

importance of study skills for university success."

Activity 12.5: Write responses to challenging Q&A situations:

• a) A question you do not know the answer to.

• b) A questioner disagrees aggressively with your argument.
• c) An off-topic question.

12.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

SAQ 12.1: What are the three main parts of a presentation? What percentage of time should
each take?

SAQ 12.2: What is the 5x5 rule for PowerPoint slides?

SAQ 12.3: List three strategies for managing presentation anxiety.

SAQ 12.4: What should you do if you do not know the answer to a question during Q&A?

SAQ 12.5: Why is eye contact important during a presentation?

12.6 Feedback to SAQs

Feedback 12.1: The three main parts are the beginning (introduction) – 10-15%, the middle
(body) – 70-80%, and the end (conclusion) – 10-15%.

Feedback 12.2: The 5x5 rule: maximum 5 bullet points per slide, maximum 5 words per
bullet point.

Feedback 12.3: Any three from: prepare thoroughly, practise repeatedly, visit the room
beforehand, use relaxation techniques, visualise success, arrive early.

Feedback 12.4: Be honest: "That is an excellent question, and I do not have the answer right
now." Then offer to find out: "I will research that and get back to you."

Feedback 12.5: Eye contact creates connection with the audience, shows confidence and
credibility, keeps the audience engaged, and allows you to see their reactions.

12.7 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) for Unit 12

Due: End of Week 12

Instructions:
Part 1: Presentation Plan (10 marks)
Write a detailed plan for a 7-minute presentation on the topic: "Three study skills every
university student should master." Include:

• Purpose statement
• Audience analysis
• Attention-getter
• Main points (3 points)
• Conclusion and call to action

Part 2: Slide Design (10 marks)

Create 5 slides (describe or draw) for the presentation. For each slide, specify title, content
(bullet points), and any images.

Part 3: Presentation Script Excerpt (10 marks)

Write the script for the first 1 minute (approximately 150 words) of your presentation,
including attention-getter, welcome, purpose statement, roadmap, and transition.

Part 4: Self-Evaluation Checklist (5 marks)

Create a self-evaluation checklist with at least 10 items covering content, structure, delivery,
visual aids, time management, and Q&A.

Total marks: 35