Figure 2.

1 The Helium Atom

2
The Chemistryy off Life
f

All matter is composed of atoms

2.1 What Are the Chemical Elements That Make Up Living 2.1 What Are the Chemical Elements That Make Up Living
Organisms? Organisms?

Atoms have volume and mass. Protons: positive charge +1

Electrons: negative charge –1
Mass of one proton or one neutron = Neutrons: zero charge
atomic
t i mass unitit (amu)
( ) or 1 dalton,
d lt or
1.7 × 10–24 grams. Atoms: # protons = # electrons—
electrically neutral

Mass of one electron = 9 × 10–28—usually

ignored

2.1 What Are the Chemical Elements That Make Up Living Figure 2.2 The Periodic Table (Part 1)

Organisms?

Element: pure substance containing

only one kind of atom
Elements are arranged in the periodic
table.

1
Figure 2.2 The Periodic Table (Part 2) 2.1 What Are the Chemical Elements That Make Up Living
Organisms?

Isotopes: forms of an element with

different numbers of neutrons, thus
different mass numbers
Example:
H ffrom periodic
He i di table
t bl here
h
12C has 6 neutrons
13C has 7 neutrons
14C has 8 neutrons
The number of protons identifies an element.
Number of protons = atomic number.

Figure 2.3 Isotopes Have Different Numbers of Neutrons 2.1 What Are the Chemical Elements That Make Up Living
Organisms?

Radioisotopes are unstable, they give

off energy in the form of alpha, beta,
and gamma radiation from the nucleus.
This radioactive decay
y transforms the
atom, including changes in the number
of protons.

2.1 What Are the Chemical Elements That Make Up Living Figure 2.4 Tagging the Brain

Organisms?

Energy from radioactive decay can

interact with surrounding material.
Radioisotopes can be incorporated into
molecules and act as a “tag”
g or label.

2
2.1 What Are the Chemical Elements That Make Up Living 2.1 What Are the Chemical Elements That Make Up Living
Organisms? Organisms?

The number of electrons determines how

Radiation can damage cells and tissues. atoms will interact.
It is sometimes used to treat cancer. Chemical reactions involve changesg in
the distribution of electrons between
atoms.

2.1 What Are the Chemical Elements That Make Up Living 2.1 What Are the Chemical Elements That Make Up Living
Organisms? Organisms?

Locations of electrons in an atom are Orbitals occur in series called electron

described by orbitals. shells or energy levels.

• Orbital: region where electron is found at • First shell: one orbital—s orbital (holds
least 90 ppercent of the time. two electrons)
• Second shell: one s and three p orbitals
• Orbitals have characteristic shapes and (holds eight electrons)
orientations, and can be occupied by two
electrons. • Third shell: nine orbitals (eighteen
electrons)
• Orbitals are filled in a specific sequence.

Figure 2.6 Electron Shells Determine the Reactivity of Atoms 2.1 What Are the Chemical Elements That Make Up Living
Organisms?

Reactive atoms have unpaired electrons in

their outermost shell.
Atoms can share electrons, or loose or gain
electrons, resulting in atoms bonded together
to form molecules.
molecules
The octet rule says that if an atom doesn’t
have 8 electrons in its outer shell, it would
like to either add or remove electrons in
order to get 8.

3
 Figure 2.7 Electrons Are Shared in Covalent Bonds

2.2 How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules?

Chemical bond: attractive force that

links atoms together to form molecules
Covalent bonds: atoms share one or
more ppairs of electrons,, so that the
outer shells are filled.

Figure 2.8 Covalent Bonding Can Form Compounds

2.2 How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules?

Compound: a molecule made up of two

or more elements.
The molecular weight of a compound is
the sum of the atomic weights
g of all
atoms in the molecule.

Carbon can form four covalent bonds.

Table 2.2

2.2 How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules?

Covalent bonds are very strong—a lot of

energy is required to break them.
Biological molecules are put together
with covalent bonds and are veryy
stable.

4
Table 2.1

2.2 How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules?

Covalent bonds can be

• Single—sharing one pair of electrons
C H

• Double—sharing two pairs of electrons

C C
• Triple—sharing three pairs of electrons
N N

Table 2.3
2.2 How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules?

Electronegativity: the attractive force

that an atomic nucleus exerts on
electrons

Figure 2.9 Water’s Covalent Bonds are Polar

2.2 How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules?

If two atoms have similar electronegativity,

they will share electrons equally—nonpolar
covalent bond.

If one atom has more electronegativity, the

electrons are drawn to that nucleus.
Electrons not shared equally—polar covalent
bond.

5
 Figure 2.10 Formation of Sodium and Chloride Ions

2.2 How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules?

Ions: electrically charged particles—

when atoms loose or gain electrons
Cations—positive
Anions negative
Anions—negative
Ionic bonds are formed by the electrical
attraction of positive and negative ions.

Salts—ionically bonded compounds

Figure 2.11 Water Molecules Surround Ions

2.2 How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules?

In a solid, ions are close together and

the ionic bond is strong.
In water, the ions are far apart and the
attraction is much weaker.
Ions interact with polar molecules—salts
dissolve in water.

Figure 2.12 Hydrogen Bonds Can Form Between or Within Molecules

2.2 How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules?

Hydrogen bonds: attraction between

the δ– end of one molecule and the δ+
hydrogen end of another molecule
Hydrogen
y g bonds form between water
molecules, and are important in the
structure of DNA and proteins.

6
2.2 How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules? 2.2 How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules?

Polar molecules that form hydrogen van der Waals forces: attractions
bonds with water are hydrophylic between nonpolar molecules. They
(“water-loving”). result from random variations in
electron distribution.
Nonpolar
p molecules such as
hydrocarbons that interact with each Individual interactions are brief and
other, but not with water are weak, but summed over a large
hydrophobic (“water-hating”). molecule, can be substantial.

Figure 2.13 Bonding Partners and Energy May Change in a Chemical Reaction

2.3 How Do Atoms Change Partners in Chemical Reactions?

In all chemical reactions, matter and

energy are neither created or
destroyed.
gy capacity
Energy: p y to do work,, or the
capacity for change. Energy usually
changes form during chemical
reactions.

This reaction is complete.

Figure 2.14 Hydrogen Bonds Hold Water Molecules Together

2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology?

Water: unique structure and special

properties
A polar molecule that forms
hydrogen
y g bonds,, it has a tetrahedral
shape.

7
2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology? 2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology?

Water has high specific heat—the Water has a high heat of vaporization
amount of heat energy required to raise —the amount of heat energy required
the temperature of 1 gram of water by to change water from a liquid to a gas
1°C. state. It is 540 cal/gram.
Water has a specific heat of 1 cal/g °C
C
The basis of evaporative cooling—heat
must be absorbed from the
Water helps moderate climate because environment in contact with the water.
of its high heat capacity.

Figure 2.15 Surface Tension

2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology?

Cohesion: water molecules resist

coming apart from one another.
• Helps water move through plants.
• Results
R lt iin surface
f tension.
t i

2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology? 2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology?

A solution is a substance (solute) Mole: The amount of substance (in

dissolved in a liquid (solvent). grams), the mass of which is
numerically equal to its molecular
Many important biochemical reactions weight.
occur in aqueous
q solutions.
1 mole Na+ = 23 g
l off N
1 mole of H2 = 2 g
One mole contains 6.02 × 1023
molecules —Avogadro’s number

8
2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology? 2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology?

When acids dissolve in water, they

A 1 molar solution (1M) is 1 mole of a release hydrogen ions—H+ (protons).
substance dissolved in water to make 1
H+ ions can attach to other molecules
liter of solution.
and change
g their p
properties.
p
Bases accept H+ ions.

2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology? 2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology?

NaOH is a strong base.

HCl  H   Cl 
NaOH  Na   OH 
HCl is a strong acid—the dissolution is
complete.
The OH– absorbs H+ to form water.

Figure 2.16 pH Values of Some Familiar Substances

2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology?

pH = negative log of the molar

concentration of H+ ions.

H+ concentration
t ti off pure water
t isi 10–77 M,
M
its pH = 7.
Lower pH numbers mean higher H+
concentration, or greater acidity.

9
2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology? 2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology?

Living organisms maintain constant Buffers illustrate the law of mass action:
internal conditions, including pH. addition of reactant on one side of a
reversible equation drives the system in
Buffers help maintain constant pH. the direction that uses up that
A buffer is a weak acid and its compound.
corresponding base.

HCO3  H   H 2CO3

2.4 What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology?

Life’s chemistry began in water.

Water and other chemicals may have
come to Earth on comets.
Water was an essential condition for life
to evolve.

10