Solution:

Evaluate:

sin 2 x
lim
x0 x

sin 3 x
lim
x0 x

sin ax
Guess what is lim , where a  0
x0 x
Q
Solution:
h( x)  x  2
k ( x)
Note:
 x 1
Q ) Find vertical asymptotes of f ( x )  2
x 1
 1
Q ) Find vertical asymptotes of f ( x )  2
x 4
 x2  9
Q ) Find vertical asymptotes of f ( x ) 
x ( x  3)
 Calculus Lecture Notes
Section 2.3: The Limit Laws

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 1 / 20

 Theorem 2.4. For any real number a and constant c:

lim c = c, lim x = a
x→a x→a

Example:
lim 12 =?,
x→7

lim x =?
x→7

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 2 / 20

 Theorem 2.5: Limit Laws (compact)
If lim f (x) = L and lim g (x) = M, then
x→a x→a

lim [f (x) ± g (x)] = L ± M,

x→a

lim [c f (x)] = cL (c ∈ R),

x→a

lim [f (x)g (x)] = LM,

x→a

f (x) L
lim = , (M ̸= 0),
x→a g (x) M
lim [f (x)]n = Ln (n ∈ N),
x→a
p
n
√
n
lim f (x) = L (root law),
x→a
Conditions for the root law: if n is odd the formula holds for all real L. If n
is even, the root is real only when L ≥ 0 (and one typically assumes
f (x) ≥ 0 for x near a so the real nth root is defined).
Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 3 / 20
 Example

Using Limit Laws evaluate:

lim (x 2 + 5)
x→3

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 4 / 20

 Example

Using Limit Laws evaluate:

3x 2 + 1
lim
x→2 2x − 3

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 5 / 20

 Theorem 2.6: Limits of Polynomials and Rational
Functions

If p(x) is a polynomial, then

lim p(x) = p(a)

x→a

p(x)
If f (x) = q(x) is a rational function with q(a) ̸= 0, then

p(a)
lim f (x) =
x→a q(a)

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 6 / 20

 Example (like Example 2.16)

Evaluate:
x 2 + 3x − 9
lim
x→2 x −3

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 7 / 20

 Additional Limit Evaluation Techniques

Some strategies when direct substitution fails:

Factor and cancel terms.
Multiply by a conjugate.
Simplify algebraically.

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 8 / 20

 Example: Limit by Factorization

Evaluate the limit

x2 − 9
lim .
x→3 x 2 − x − 6

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 9 / 20

 Example: Limit by Conjugation

Evaluate the limit √

x +4−2
lim .
x→0 x

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 10 / 20

 Example: Limit by Algebraic Simplification

Evaluate the limit

1
x −1
lim .
x→1 x −1

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 11 / 20

 Example

Evaluate: √
x −3
lim
x→9 x −9

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 12 / 20

 Example: Evaluating a Limit When Limit Laws Do Not
Apply

Evaluate:
1 2

lim − .
x→0 x x(x − 4)

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 13 / 20

 Example: Evaluating a One-Sided Limit Using Limit Laws
(like 2.21)

Evaluate: p
lim + 4 − x 2.
x→−2

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 14 / 20

 Example: Limit of a Piecewise Function at x = π

Consider the function

(
sin(x), x < π,
f (x) =
cos(x), x ≥ π.

Question: Determine the following limits:

lim f (x), lim f (x), lim f (x).

x→π − x→π + x→π

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 15 / 20

 Example: Limit of the Form K/0, K ̸= 0

Evaluate the limit

3x + 2
lim .
x→1 x 2 − 1

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 16 / 20

 Theorem 2.7: The Squeeze Theorem
Suppose g (x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x) for all x near a (except possibly at a). If
lim g (x) = lim h(x) = L,
x→a x→a
then
lim f (x) = L.
x→a

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 17 / 20

 Example with Graph

Evaluate:
lim x 2 sin 1


x .
x→0

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 18 / 20

 Example with Graph

Evaluate:
lim x 2 sin 1


x .
x→0

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 18 / 20

 Important Limits

Two very important limits are:

sin x
lim =1
x→0 x

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 19 / 20

 Example

Evaluate:
1 − cos(θ)
lim .
θ→0 θ

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 20 / 20

 Example

Evaluate:
1 − cos(θ)
lim .
θ→0 θ
Evaluate:
sin(4x)
lim .
x→0 x

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 20 / 20

 Example

Evaluate:
1 − cos(θ)
lim .
θ→0 θ
Evaluate:
sin(4x)
lim .
x→0 x
Evaluate:
sin(y )
lim .
y →π y −π

Based on Gilbert Strang, OpenStax Calculus Calculus Lecture Notes 20 / 20