Candidates should be able to identify and name the world’s continents and oceans:

• Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Europe, North America, Oceania and South America
• Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean and Southern Ocean.

1. Rocks and minerals and their

exploitation.
The Earth is a rocky planet, compared with, for example Jupiter, which is a gas giant. This
means that the Earth is made from rocks and metal ores. The earth weighs 5.97 x 1026
kilograms and has a density of 5.2 grams per cubic centimeter, which makes it the densest
planet in the solar system. This is mainly because the core consists of Iron surrounded by a
mantle of Rock. However, it is only the very outside part of the Earth, above the Mantle, that
humans can use. The material that makes up this region is what we call Rocks and Minerals.
Although this represents a vast amount of material, the quantity of it, like everything else, is
limited. What is more, extraction and use can cause environmental and other problems. We
are in danger of using up the available sources of many rocks, the most well known of
which is probably coal.
Peak mineral is a concept that provides a date, after which there will only be less extraction
of a mineral. Peak coal, for example is the date at which it is calculated, that the most coal is
being extracted, after which it will decline. Because we do not know exactly how much coal
exists, estimates of peak coal vary. Some say it is 200 years away, others say it could be
soon, maybe 2020. This unpredictability because of future unknowns is illustrated by the
situation with oil. In 1956, the originator of the peak mineral idea, M.K. Hubbert, predicted
that the peak oil date for The USA would be 1970. This did not happen, in fact the
production of oil in The USA is still rising today. However, it is true that the resources of all
these commodities, such as Coal, Oil, phosphorus (current estimated peak date 2030),
copper (current estimated peak date 2040) and uranium (current estimated peak date
2030), are finite. It is therefore important that we limit the use of these resources, and
reuse and recycle them whenever we can.

Formation of rocks:
A. Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are the new rocks in the Earth’s crust.
They are being formed along plate boundaries.

B. Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are second hand rocks in the Earth’s crust.
This is because they are made from old materials.
They are most commonly found in large lowland areas.

C. Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are old igneous and sedimentary rocks which have been changed.
They are associated with old plateau blocks and ancient shields, such as the Deccan Plateau
in India.

Rock: a combination of one or more minerals

Mineral: a naturally occurring inorganic substance with a specific chemical composition

Igneous rock: rock made during a volcanic process

e.g. Granite & Basalt.

Magma: molten rock below the surface of the Earth

Solution: formed when a solid is dissolved in a liquid

Precipitates: when a substance comes out of solution

Ion: an atom in which the number of positively charged protons is not equal to the number
of negatively charged electrons

Sedimentary rock: a rock formed from material derived from the weathering (the processes
that cause rock to be broken down into smaller particles) of other rocks or the
accumulation of dead plants and animals.
e.g. Limestone, sandstone & Shale.
Metamorphic rock: a rock formed from existing rocks by a combination of heat and
pressure.
e.g. Marble & Slate.

Weathering: the processes that cause rock to be broken down into smaller particles

Erosion: the movement of rock and soil fragments to different locations

Organic: derived from living organisms

Extraction of Rocks and Minerals from the Earth:

Minerals provide us with a wide range of materials that we use in everyday
life. Coal and oil provide energy and many chemicals used in industry. Metallic
ores provide us with the metals and alloys needed to make products such as
computers, mobile phones, cars, wires and nails. The demand for minerals
continued to increase both from developed and developing countries.
Searching for minerals
People have searched for minerals for thousands of years.
The simplest way to find mineral deposits is to look carefully at the surface of
rocks. This process of prospecting has found nearly all the surface deposits of
minerals worldwide.
Deposits on the earth’s surface can also be found using a range of remote
sensing methods. For example, an area of land can be photographed from the
air and the images carefully analysed for signs of minerals. Aerial photography
can cover much more ground than a person walking over the surface of rocks.
Images and other data from satellites can also be used to analyse very large
areas. Mineral deposits are weathered at the earth’s surface, producing
mineral oxides. These can be detected by their unique radiation pattern, which
is recorded by a satellite and downloaded to a computer for analysis. Other
satellites operate by sending signals to the surface of the earth and then
collecting reflected Signals. The system works in all weathers, through
complete cloud cover and at night.
Valuable mineral ores in the rocks below the surface can be located from the
satellite images. Computers are used to process the data from a region of
interest to see whether any minerals are present in the area. The satellite’s
positioning system records the exact location, and the geologists then visit the
location to confirm the minerals have been identified correctly. Once in an area
identified from satellite data, the geologists can check further locations to see
whether the minerals of interest are present nearby as well. Using satellites
means large areas can be geologically mapped quickly and at low cost.
Field surveys on the ground are used to take samples. These are sent to a
laboratory for geochemical analysis, so that the chemicals in the samples can
be identified. The samples can be taken from stream sediments, Soil or rocks
(using shallow drilling). The points where the samples are taken are usually
selected by overlaying a grid on a map of the survey area. The location of the
sample points in the field can be found accurately using the Global positioning
system (GPS).

There are two main types of mining

Surface mining includes open-cast, open-pit, open-cut and strip mining.
Sub-surface mining includes deep and shaft mining.

Surface mining: a type of mining used when the mineral is either exposed on the surface or
overlain by only small amounts of overburden.
Overburden: the rock and soil overlying an economically viable mineral deposit.

Sub-surface mining: a type of mining used when the deposit is covered by a deep layer(s) of
unwanted rock

Opencast mining
A type of surface mining
Open-pit mining
A type of surface mining
Open-cut mining

Strip mining

Deep mining/shaft mining

Exploration
Easy place to look for minerals / Difficult to reach to look for minerals
No sensitive local environmental issue / Environmental concerns and protected areas.

Geology
Simple geology / Difficult geology
Easy to use machines / Impossible to use machines

Accessibility
Environmental Impact assessment
A process by which the probable effects on the environment of a development are assessed
and measured.
When a company applies for a license to start working, an environmental impact
assessment is carried out. The license application is usually approved if the company has a
plan to keep the loss of habitat as small as possible and then to restore the land after
mining has finished. An environmental impact assessment tries to identify all the possible
types of damage to the environment. To have the license application approved, any mining
company must have detailed plans to control the amount of damage to the environment.

Supply and demand.

High demand, low supply / Demand low, supply high.
Higher prices encourage more production. Even small mines in remote areas can be
profitable. / Low prices reduce output. Production is confined to large, well-located mines
where costs of production are low.

Impact of Rock and Mineral Extraction:

• loss of habitat
• noise, water, land, air, visual pollution
• management of waste

• employment opportunities
• improvements in local / national economy

Extracting valuable minerals provides employment for people and provides

taxes for the government. Modern mining is carried out using machines so
only a small number of people will be directly employed to extract minerals.
However, if the mineral is then refined and processed in the same country,
further jobs are created. In many cases minerals are exported to one country
to be used in manufacturing processes in another country. This can create jobs
in the country importing the mineral. Overall, mineral extraction does provide
employment, even if modern methods mean that the total number of mining
jobs may only be a few hundred.
Mineral extraction usually benefits both local and national economies. Jobs are
created directly to extract minerals and further jobs to supply transport and
mining equipment. More jobs are created when the mineral is refined to make
products.

• improvements in facilities and Infrastructure

Some improvements to transport and services, such as healthcare and
education, will be required to supply any mining industry as well as support
the mine workers and their families. Some improvements will be paid for by
the mining companies as a condition of their mining license. Taxes paid by
mining companies and individual workers can provide a country with enough
revenue to invest in infrastructure projects to benefit the whole population of
the country.
Managing the impact of Rock and Mineral Extraction:
• safe disposal of mining waste
In the past, mining waste was usually been put in piles near the point of
extraction. In some cases, stable waste piles were placed on top of water
courses, which then become polluted with toxic chemicals. In other cases,
waste piles were unstable and collapsed. Apart from the possible loss of life
caused by a collapse, collapsed waste piles increase land and water pollution.
Today, safe storage and disposal of mine waste is one of the most important
aspects of any mining license application. In a well-regulated system,
applications must provide a detailed plan to show how mine waste will be
stored to prevent collapse. The site of the mine waste must also prevent the
possibility of water pollution. The plan must include details of how the waste
will be monitored to detect any movement or water pollution.

• land restoration: soil improvement,

bioremediation, tree planting.
Some mine waste does not allow the growth of tree roots, so other methods of
restoration have to be used. Contaminated waste can be treated where it was
left by bioremediation (a process in which living things are used to remove
toxic chemicals from a natural site). Alternatively, waste can be removed from
a site to a treatment plant.
Bioremediation is a process of removing pollutants from waste using living
organisms. Many organisms are able to breakdown toxic substances into less
hazardous substances. This often happen slowly in natural environments.
Some microorganisms, such as bacteria found in soils, are able to absorb
pollutants and process them via metabolic pathways into less harmful
substances. Some plants are also naturally able to bio-accumulate toxic metals,
and this process can be speeded up with the addition of fertilizers. These
plants are grown on contaminated waste. The plants absorb toxic metals, and
later the parts of the plant aboveground are removed so the waste left in the
ground becomes less toxic.

• making lakes and nature reserves

• using as landfill sites

Sustainable use of Rocks and Minerals:

• increased efficiency of the extraction of rocks and minerals
The greater the percentage of a mineral that can be extracted from mineral
ore, the less waste and the greater profit for the mining company. Also less
new ore needs to be mined to satisfy the demand. When only about 2% of the
useful copper is obtained from copper ore, even an improvement of 0.5% in
the amount of copper retrieved will significantly extend the life of the known
reserves of copper. The life expectancy of many oil wells has been extended by
new technology which allows a higher % of the oil in the well to be forced out.

• increased efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals

This is where companies through their own R & D departments can make a big
difference. New Jet engines for aircraft are not developed unless they can work
more efficiently and save fuel. Car manufacturers seek more efficient engines
which increase the number of kilometers per liter of fuel.

• the need to recycle rocks and minerals

Recycling as an idea for saving natural resources is not new. Some industries
have recycled for many years. The steel industry is a good example; scrap iron
is collected and reused in electric furnaces, saving on the amount of new iron
ore needed. Recycling aluminium cans is very energy and cost efficient.
Reprocessing of the cans only needs 5% of the energy needed to produce
aluminium from its raw material(bauxite).

• legislation
Legislation without enforcement is useless. In developed countries in Europe,
governments used legislation to force waste collection companies to reduce
the amount of waste sent to landfill sites in favour of recycling.

2. Energy and the environment

Fossil fuel formation
• describe the formation of the fossil fuels: coal, oil and gas

Most valuable mineral resources provided by the Earth are fossil fuels (Coal,
oil & Natural Gas)

Technological Breakthrough came in about 1750 when steam Engine based on

coal was invented.
Steam Engine drove Railway Engines, Ships and Factory Machinery.
However in the 2nd half of 20th century, a liquid Oil has won many advantages
over solid coal.
It is cheaper to drill oil than by mining coal.
It is cheaper & easier to move long distances by pipelines and tankers.
Oil enabled the transport revolution (Cars, trucks, container ships, and
aircraft) to grow.
Transport Revolution have allowed local, national and global movements of
people and goods on an unimaginable scale.

Fossil Fuel: a carbon based fuel, formed over many millions of years from the
decay of living matter

Energy resources and the generation of Electricity:

Non-Renewable: an item or resource that exists in a finite amount that cannot
be replaced.
Oil, Coal, Natural gas, Nuclear power.
Renewable: an item or resource that will not be used up or can be replaced
means infinite.
Solar power, Hydroelectric power, Geothermal power, Tidal power, Wave
power, Wind power, Biofuels e.g. bioethanol, biogas and wood.
Bioethanol: the creation of ethanol from fermentation.
Biogas: the creation of methane from the breakdown of organic materials in an
anaerobic digester.

Anaerobic digestion: Anaerobic digestion is the breaking down of organic

waste (such as waste food and vegetation) using bacteria. This process takes
place in a sealed container and produces methane, a flammable gas that can be
used for a variety of heating purposes. The composted waste can be used on
land to improve the soil structure.

Electromagnetic Induction: a process used for generating electricity that uses

the movement of a metal coil in a magnet.

Generator: A machine that converts mechanical energy (such as movement)

into electrical energy.
Turbine: A machine often containing fins that is made to revolve by the use of
gas, steam or air.
Burner: A receptacle used to hold fuel as it is burned.

Boiler: A vessel used to heat water to convert it into steam.

• non-renewable: fossil fuels,

nuclear power using uranium
• renewable: biofuels (bioethanol,
biogas and wood), geothermal
power, hydro-electric power, tidal
power, wave power, solar power,
wind power
Energy demand:
• domestic demand
The impact of more efficient manufacturing processes has meant that many
goods have become more affordable. TVs for example were once only seen in
the homes of high earners in the developed world because they were so
expensive to produce. They are now widely available, many households having
more than one. The same trend can be seen with cars, computers and mobile
phones, to name just a few.
Domestic demand and changing purchasing patterns have resulted in
consumers in some countries wanting and expecting to be able to get fruit and
vegetables that are not naturally in season locally. This demand can be met by
either producing them in controlled conditions such as a glasshouse or
growing them in a more favorable climate and transporting them via air
freight. In either scenario, the energy cost is significant.
• industrial demand
The use of energy per head of population is far lower in a traditional farming
community that it is in a community that has become industrialised.
Manufacturing requires (e.g. Iron & Steel) the use of large quantities of energy
in all stages of production.
Many items are no longer considered as luxuries but instead as necessities:
more people want to buy them, and the increase in demand leads to increasing
energy needs for increased production.

• transport
Some estimates suggest that there has been a fourfold increase in the number
of shipping journeys in the past 20 years. There has also been a significant
increase in the amount of air transport.
Both modes of transport require large amounts of fossil fuels to operate.
• personal and national wealth

A poor economy will mean:

Less manufacturing (less energy used)
Fewer goods to transport (less energy used)
An inability to purchase foreign energy supplies.

• climate
People living in a temperate climate are likely to experience colder winters
than those living in a more equatorial climate. The energy demand for heating
in colder climates is likely to be far higher. In the winter months, the
population also experiences fewer hours of daylight, with a corresponding
increase in use electric lighting.

Conservation and management of energy resources:

• reducing consumption, such as
using insulation, turning electrical devices off and using energy
efficient devices and vehicles

• energy from waste cooking oil

The food processing industries use large quantities of cooking oils in the
preparation and manufacture of foods. These vegetable oils, once used, need
to be disposed of. Schemes in many countries exist to collect these oils and
recycle them into biofuels suitable for running vehicles. In some cases, it is
additive to fuels such as diesel, in others, the vehicles may run exclusively on
this biodiesel.

• exploiting existing energy sources

• education of people for energy conservation

Research has shown that while individuals are concerned about the
environment and the use of natural resources, they are not often prepared to
pay extra to care for it.
The Educational message must be that significant: savings in energy bills can
be made over the longer term by reducing energy use, even if there is an initial
cost. This education should be re-enforced by governments insisting that
energy – efficiency ratings are provided new products to they can be
compared with other models when making a purchasing choice.
In some countries, where the use of education to get the desired response is
too slow, governments have passed laws to make changes happen more
rapidly. Examples include
Stricter building regulations requiring new constructions to be more energy
efficient.
Preventing the sale of inefficient types of light bulbs to force the use of other
types.
• transport policies

While the manufacture of goods is a major use of the world’s energy, the
transportation of these items across the world and the use of vehicles for
personal transportation are also significant users of energy. Governments have
a large part to play in regulating the use of transport and encouraging more
efficient use, which will mean less impact on the world oil reserves and air
quality.
Current government initiatives include:
Regulations regarding the quality of exhaust gases from vehicles, and fuel
efficiency.
Restrictions on where vehicles may go
Taxation on fuels
Surcharges to travelling to certain places, such as cities, at peak times
Improving public transport so it is easier and cheaper to use than cars.
Improving routes for cyclists and pedestrians.
Encouraging car sharing
Restricting when cars can be used, for example in New Dehli and Paris,
regulations have been imposed that only allow cars with odd numbers license
plates to operate on odd number dates and vice versa.
Providing grants to buy more fuel efficient vehicles.
Providing grants for vehicles using cleaner technology, such as electric
powered vehicles.

• fracking
There are considerable concerns that the worldwide increase in demand for
energy will not be met by the current development of renewable technologies,
putting greater pressure on the finite supplies of fossil fuels. International
agreements have also prevented the exploitation of potentially large supplies
of oil, gas and coal in Antarctica, because the environmental impact would be
too great and the damage to the ecosystem irreparable. Research has
identified potential sources of fuels that so far have not been utilized. The
most prominent and controversial of these uses a technique known as
fracking. Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) involves blasting large amounts of
water, sand and chemicals deep underground to extract oil and natural gas. In
order to obtain these resources, a vertical hole, often 2-3 km deep, is drilled to
reach the fuel-rich rocks (Shale rocks).
Water, chemicals and sand are pumped down into the shale rock layer under
pressure. This cause the rocks to fracture (split-open), releasing the oil and
natural gas, which are forced back to the surface and collected.
The three components each serve a different purpose:
Water is plentiful, easy to handle and can be pumped under pressure.
Chemicals are added to assist the process and to stop the blockage of pipes,
but many of them toxic.
Sand is used to keep the cracks in the rock open as they occur, allowing the oil
and gas to escape, it is sometimes referred to as the proppant.

Proppant: a material such as sand used to keep cracks in the shale rocks open
to allow gas or oil extraction.
It allows access to more gas and oil, which are in limited supply / There is a
risk of toxins from fracking entering the water table.
Using gas and oil produces less pollution than burning coal, so it is better to
extract extra supplies than rely on coal / The mixture of chemicals used is
toxic and may affect local residents.
It reduces the need to import oil or gas from other countries /Fracking uses a
lot of water, which may reduce availability for other purposes.
Shale rock is a long way underground, far below the water table, so poses little
threat. / Noise pollution: fracking in an area will affect the local community.
Oil and gas have been drilled for many years and this is just another deep
method / Natural ares will be destroyed when new drills developed.
Fracking will supply many jobs locally / Fracturing lower levels of rock may
cause additional earth tremors or The longer term impact of the technology is
not known and any damage done may be irreparable.

Impact of Oil Pollution:

• causes: off-shore oil extraction, pipelines and shipping
• impacts on ecosystems: birds, marine mammals, coral reefs, beaches
Phytoplankton: Microscopic organisms living in the seawater with the ability
to photosynthesis. They provide food for many larger organisms.
Oil floats on the surface of the water and prevents light from entering. This
prevents the phytoplankton from photosynthesizing, so they die.

Fish: Different species are present throughout the oceans, some food on
phytoplankton and some prey on other fish. They are food for mammals and
birds.
Shortage of food due to reduction in phytoplankton. Oil floating on water
surface prevents gas exchange. Fish become short of oxygen and die. Fish are
also affected by the oil through direct contact, which affects their gills.

Birds: Mobile over large distances, feeding on fish, often diving into the water
to catch them. Others wade at the costal edge feeding on fish and shellfish.
Shortage of food as fish and other creatures die. Many consume oil when
eating fish (which can be toxic); when hunting for food, feathers become
coated in oil, affecting their ability to fly and buoyancy.

Mammals: Marine based mammals, for example dolphins and whales, will
often travel great distances chasing prey.
Food sources are depleted by the impact of the oil. The mammals may also
swallow oil while feeding, which will be toxic to them. A coating of oil will
affect their skin, etc.

Reefs: A complex ecosystem, the habitat for a wide community of organisms.

An oil slick will prevent sunlight from reaching plants and phytoplankton,
preventing photosynthesis occurring. Lack of oxygen will cause other species
to die. The impact on the balance of the whole reef might cause complete
devastation. Areas of reef may become covered in oil.
(Corals are marine invertebrates. Coral species include the important reef
builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form
hard skeleton)
Beaches: A distinct ecosystem supporting a range of land-based and aquatic
organisms.
Oil is often washed in by tides, coating rocks. Organisms living in shallow
water and rock pools may be killed by the toxic effects of the oil. Animal food
sources will be affected

Management of Oil Pollution:

• MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships)
MARPOL (which stands for Marine Pollution) is the international convention
for the prevention of pollution from ships and sets out a number of regulations
covering pollution by oil, sewage, rubbish and toxic liquids, among others. The
initial agreement was signed in 1973, updated in 1978 and came into force in
1983. Prior to MARPOL, it was common for ships to dispose of waste, or clean
their storage tanks, in the middle of an ocean, with unknown environmental
effects.
Under the MARPOL regulations, rules have been introduced to cover the
process of transferring crude oil from one vessel to another while at sea, a
common cause of smaller oil spills. All tankers must be certified to show they
have appropriate systems in place, and records to show that they are being
used. Failure to comply with these regulations can result in a heavy fine or the
ship not being given permission to leave port until suitable systems are in
place and verified as working.

• double-hulled oil tankers

A ship design that uses a second layer, allowing the cargo to remain safe if the
external layer is damaged.

• dealing with oil spills (booms, detergent sprays, skimmers)

A boom is a floating barrier that can be used to surround the oil slick and
prevent it spreading to other areas. This process works well when the spill is
covers a relatively small area and the sea is calm. It can also be used as a
barrier to protect environmentally sensitive areas (such as a river estuary)
while a spill is dealt with. Booms do not work very well when the sea is rough
and stormy, conditions that sometimes were the cause of the damage to the
ship.
Detergent Sprays: detergents help to break down the oil slick into smaller
droplets and disperse it. The smaller droplets of oil will float away and
degrade over time. Detergents are most effective on smaller spills but recent
research has suggested that they can cause more environmental damage than
the crude oil itself. Coral reefs appear to have a low tolerance to detergents.
Skimmers: these clean the water without changing the chemical or physical
properties of oil. Using a material that oil easily attaches to, the skimmer drags
oil off the seawater surface, which is then mechanically scraped off into a
container. This system is often used once an oil slick has been contained
within a boom. It is a very useful technique, but skimmers will not work
effectively in rough or stormy sea conditions.
Soil Composition:
• composition: mineral particles, organic content (living plants,
animals, microorganisms and their dead remains), air and water

Soil is a habitat for plants and other organisms that grow within it. It is made
up of a number of components. There are four main groups

Mineral particles: which are a combination of rock fragments and other

smaller in-organic (non-living) items.
Organic content: which is a mixture of living plants and animals and their dead
remains.

Air: which is held within the spaces (pores) between the particles and organic
content of the soil.

Water: which is also held within the soil pores and is the water that is
available for plants to grow.

• particle size: sand, silt, clay

Sand: 2.0 to 0.02 mm ; Feels gritty ; Large pores sizes, Drains well, Contains
large air spaces.
Silt: 0.02 to 0.002 mm; feels silky or soapy; Less friction than sand, Particles
slippery.
Clay: <0.002 mm; Sticky when wet; Particles held together tightly; Poor air
spaces or drainage; Forms a hard mass when dried.

Irrigation: the supply of water to a crop by the grower

Loam: a soil that is mixture of sand, silt and clay, combining the best
properties of each

Sand Particle characteristics: It has large pore sizes. It drains well. It contains
large air spaces.

Silt Particle characteristics: It has less friction than sand. These particles are
slippery.

Clay Particle characteristics: Particles held together tightly. Poor air spaces or
drainage. Forms a hard mass when dried.

Soils for Plant growth:

• mineral ions:
nitrogen as nitrate ions (NO3–),
phosphorus as phosphate ions(PO43–),
potassium as potassium ions (K+)
The fact that it is often stated that plants are able to manufacture their own
food (glucose) through photosynthesis is also confusing; if this is the case, why
do farmers give fertilizers (plant food) to their crops?
In addition to carbon dioxide and water for the production of sugars, which
are primarily used as an energy source, plants also require a supply of
nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and a range of other essential elements to
construct proteins, and other chemicals to carry out plant processes. These
mineral nutrients are typically obtained through the roots of the plant. In
element form, nitrogen and phosphorous are not accessible to a plant,
therefore when scientists talk about the application of nitrogen and
phosphorous they actually mean the oxides of these elements supplied as
compounds. Potassium, however, is taken as potassium ion (K+). When
dissolved in water these compounds split, making the ions of the minerals
available for uptake by the plant roots.
The roots of the plants contain an electric charge that enables the charged ions
to bind with them and be taken up for use within the plant.

• organic content

• pH
The uptake of nutrients by plant roots is affected by the pH of the soil, a
measure of the acidity or alkalinity. In absolute terms the pH scale runs from
pH 1 (acid) to pH 14 (alkaline). It is very rare for a soil to be at the very
extremes of this scale, except after major chemical spills or pollution incidents.
The pH of a soil may be dependent on a number of factors, but in most cases
the biggest influence tends to the type of parent rock the mineral components
are formed from or the pH of the water that flows into the area via rivers or
lakes.
Plant growers and farmers have known for a long time that some plants fail to
grow well in certain soils even if supplied with additional fertilizer. Sweet
potatoes, for example, grow better at a pH of 5.0-5.5 rather than a more
alkaline soil of pH 8.0. If grown at a pH of 8.0, sweet potatoes plants show
signs of nutrient deficiency (such as yellow leaves), even though the farmer
may have provided enough nutrients. Clearly the pH must have an impact on
the uptake of nutrients.
Research has shown that while every plant has its own preferred soil pH, not
all mineral nutrients are taken up equally. The pH of the soil will also impact
on the availability of these mineral nutrients within the soil. Some ions are less
available at certain soil pH levels. If the pH of a soil is 6.0, a grower would need
to be aware that while there is likely to be plenty of nitrogen, potassium,
phosphorus and sulfur available there is a risk the crop will be short of
magnesium, molybdenum and calcium, which are less readily available at that
pH.
This information gives the farmer or grower two choices to maximize their
yield (and use of fertilizers). Either they need to check the crop and look for
deficiencies on a regular basis and apply the relevant mineral nutrient as it is
needed, or they could try to change the pH of the soil to either acidify it, which
is often achieved using specific fertilizers that have an acidifying effect, or
make it more alkaline using a substance such as ground limestone, a naturally
occurring rock.

• air content
Clay soils have small air spaces that can limit the amount of oxygen reaching
plant roots. This in turn can limit respiration and the amount of possible root
growth. In contrast, sandy soils have large air gaps allowing good transmission
with high levels of oxygen and therefore a healthy root system.

• water content
Water tends to cling to the surface of particles. A clay soil has far more
particles, and therefore a far larger surface area, compared with a sandy soil.
Clay soils therefore hold significantly more water.

• drainage
• ease of cultivation
The characteristics of sandy soils include
Free draining (because of the large air spaces between particles)
Low water holding capacity
Quick to warm up (because the spaces between particles hold less water)
Easier to cultivate (because the particles do not stick together easily)
Poor retention of nutrients (because there is less opportunity for the particles
to bind mineral ions and more opportunity for leaching)
A greater risk of erosion (because the particles do not stick together tightly)

The characteristics of clay soils include

Water does not drain away easily
High water holding capacity
Slow to warm up (because of the large amount of water held in the spaces
between the particles)
hard to cultivate (because it is sticky and wet after heavy rain, dries hard and
cracks after prolonged exposure to sunlight, and is heavy because of its high
water-holding capacity)
Retains nutrients well (Clay particles have an electric charge that binds to
mineral ions)

Agriculture Types:
• arable, pastoral and mixed
Arable Farming: the production of crops from land. The production of plants
for consumption by humans e.g. rice, maize, wheat and soybeans.

Pastoral Farming: Farming that focuses on breeding and rearing livestock. The
production of animals or animal-related products. This may also known as
livestock farming or grazing. Pastoral farms can produce meat or other animal
byproducts, such as milk, wool or eggs.

Mixed Farming: farming that practices both rearing livestock and growing
crops. A third type of farming that grow crops for food and rear animals.

Extensive production: farming that is spread over a wide area and uses less
resources per metre of land.

Intensive production: farming that aims to maximize the yield from an area
using a large amount of resources

• subsistence and commercial

Subsistence farming is the cultivation and production of food to meet the

needs of the farmers and their families. There is very little surplus food; if
there is any surplus it is often exchanged (bartered) for other things the family
needs, and perhaps a small amount of cash. Subsistence farmers aim to grow
almost everything they need.

Commercial farming is the cultivation of products with the main focus of

selling them for cash. While some of the food may be used by the farmers (and
their families), this is only a very small proportion compared with the amount
that is sold. Commercial farms often use technology to increase yields and
reduce the costs of production.
While it is possible for both farming systems to provide a farmer with money,
it is the proportion of food that is used for each purpose that is important.

Increasing Agricultural Yields:

• rotation
Farmers observed that growing the same type of plant in the same plot year
after year often resulted in a decrease in yield over time. Further investigation
has shown that continually growing the same plants in the same place causes:
A build-up of diseases in the soil that affect plant growth;
An increase in the pests that attack the plants;
A depletion in soil nutrients, because the same crop uses the same ratio of
nutrients each year.
Moving a crop to a different piece of land each year means that:
Diseases in the soil affecting that plant are left behind and have nothing to
infect;
Pest need to find the new site and so their numbers are reduced;
The soil in the new plot is more likely to have the nutrients the crop needs.

• fertilisers
Fertilisers contain minerals such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus,
which are essential for healthy plant growth. When used correctly, fertilisers
increase crop yield because they add to the amount of mineral nutrients
already present in the soil. When used incorrectly, they can cause
environmental damage because they are washed into rivers and lakes by
rainfall.
Organic fertilisers are substances that have been derived from natural sources
(typically living sources).
Inorganic fertilisers are manufactured within a factory.

• irrigation
In many locations the availability of water within the soil is a major limitation
to the growth of a crop. Water is also in demand for human consumption,
industry and livestock, and the use of water for crops may fall below these
priorities. In such situations it is important to ensure that water is used
efficiently. It has been calculated that farming accounts for almost 70% of the
water used in the world today.
Symptoms of a plant lacking water include wilting of leaves. When this occurs,
photosynthesis ceases, so plant growth processes slow down. If the lack of
available water continues, this could ultimately lead to the death of the plant.

• insect control (insecticide and biological control), weed control

(herbicide), fungi control (fungicide)

Weed: a plant growing in an inappropriate place.

Herbicide: a chemical used to control weeds

Pest: an animal that attacks or feeds on a plant

Pesticide: a chemical used to control pests, but also, less accurately, used as a
collective term to describe pest- and disease-killing chemicals.

Insecticide: a chemical used to kill insects

Pathogen: a collective name to describe disease-causing organisms (bacteria,

fungi and viruses)

Disease: a pathogen (fungus, bacterium or virus) that attacks a plant

Fungicide: a chemical used to control fungal diseases.

• mechanization
Using machines such as tractors means that larger areas can be cultivated
easily by one person. The power of the machine’s engine means work like
ploughing can take place when there is more water in the soil (when it is
heavier), extending the season when soils can be cultivated. As well as basic
cultivation tasks, additional attachments can be added to a tractor to allow
efficient application of fertilizers or pesticides. Tractors also have the capacity
to transport large loads, which is useful at harvest time.

• selective breeding of animals and plants

Selective breeding of dairy cattle in the USA has led to double the milk yield
per cow compared with 40 years ago.
Selective breeding of beef cattle has developed a breed called the Belgian Blue
that has exceptional muscle growth, resulting in a greater amount of meat
from an animal.
Improvements to wheat varieties have helped double the production of wheat
in India since it was introduced in the mid 1960s.

Selective breeding of rice has resulted in the production of a strain called IR8,
the use of IR8 has increased annual rice production in the Philippines from 3.7
tonnes to 7.7 tonnes in 20 years.
But Selective breeding is a relatively slow process and has a low success rate.
It is estimated that only 1 in 20000 new plant seedlings will become a
successful commercial variety. Testing and evaluation can take 20 years, and
the time scale is likely to be longer for many animals.

• genetically modified organisms

Genetic modification can produce faster results. Technology has enabled
scientists to map the genetic material (DNA) of different plant and animal
species to understand their genetic code. This genetic mapping has brought
about a greater knowledge of how short sections of DNA called genes relate to
the characteristics of a living organism.
Understanding this code has enabled scientists to insert a piece of DNA from
one organism into the genetic code of another. The result is called a genetically
modified organism (GMO). The process is controversial, with supporters both
for and against the technology.

Gene: a sequence of DNA that is responsible for a characteristic of a living

organism.
GMO: an organism whose genetic material has been altered by genetic
engineering.

There are many different reasons for genetically modifying plant species;
Disease and pest resistance: genes can be cut from a resistant plant and added
to a crop plant.
Nutritional value: plants can be developed that are more nourishing.
Growth of plants in inhospitable areas.
Higher yields.
Herbicide resistance, which would allow farmers to spray the whole crop and
its weeds and only affect the weeds.
Less use of pesticides, if the GMO plant is pest resistant.
Crops with longer storage lives, leading to less food wastage.

Concerns about the development of GMOs include:

The products are not natural.
The genes might get into wild plants if they interbreed with GMOs.
Issues for other insects caused by insect-resistant varieties.

It is possible to transfer genetic material between species of plant or even

between animals, not just between breeds of the same species. The resulting
organisms are called transgenic. This process provides even more possibilities
for scientists to manipulate the way in which a plant or animal grows.
Scientists are using this technology in some unexpected ways, such as using
genetically modified carrots to make a drug within the carrot cells that can be
used to treat humans. If successful, the growth of these GMO carrots could
provide another commercial crops for farmers.

• controlled environments:
greenhouses and hydroponics

A building made of glass or similar transparent material that is used to

manage the environment (e.g. temperature, Light level, Humidity, Day length,
water) for plant growth.

Hydroponics: growing plants without soil, with the nutrients the plant needs
dissolved in water; this technique is often used in conjunction with a growing
blueprint.

Growing blueprint: the growing requirements of a crop throughout its life,

which a grower can use to maximize the yield.

Advantages of hydroponics include:

No need for soil.
Can be used anywhere (there are experiments being carried out in space).
An intensive system that can provide high yields.
Easy to harvest.
Plants are given exactly the nutrients they need in the irrigation water.
Water is recycled, so used efficiently.
No weeds or pests and diseases in the soil.
Pollutants are not released into the environment.
Disadvantages of hydroponics include:
It is expensive to set up.
Only suitable for small production areas.
Requires a lot of technical knowledge.
Disease, if present, is rapidly spread through the water supply to all plants.
Plants can die quickly if conditions are not maintained at optimum levels.

Transpiration: the movement of water up plants and its subsequent loss as

water vapour from their leaves.

Mulch: a natural or artificial layer on the soil surface used to reduce water
evaporation and weed growth
Impact of Agriculture:
• overuse of insecticides and herbicides
The use of chemical sprays to control populations of insects and weeds has
increased yield and also prevented the loss of food in storage. However,
overuse can cause problems that have implications for future production.
Regular use of one insecticide chemical can cause resistance within the pest
population. This means that the toxic chemical no longer kills all the target
pest individuals. The same principle results in herbicide resistance.
The best practice for farmers is to use the range of different pesticides so that
if resistance (the ability of a living organism to survive when exposed to a
toxic chemical, such as a pesticide or herbicide) starts to build up to one
product another product is still likely be toxic to the pest.
Herbicides can remain within the soil long enough to disrupt the growth of
other plants. Heavy rainfall can cause leaching of insecticides and herbicides
into rivers and lakes, causing damage to other organisms. There is some
evidence that herbicides can have an impact on soil organisms such as
microscopic animals and fungi, which has an effect on the food web.
Insecticides and herbicides can also cause unintended environmental damage.
In case of insecticides, their application can kill beneficial insects such as bees,
which will then affect the pollination of plants.

• overuse of fertilisers
It is well known that adding fertilizers to soils that are short of mineral
nutrients will increase the growth of plants. It is therefore easy to assume that
adding fertilizers to any soil will increase the growth of plants and therefore
increase their yield. However, the addition of extra mineral nutrients stops
having a beneficial impact once the soil has reached its maximum mineral
nutrient level. After that point, any additional application is a waste of money
and resources. There will be negative impacts on the environment too.

• mismanagement of irrigation causing salinisation and waterlogging

Too much irrigation can have various negative effects.

Damage to the soil structure: when wet, air pockets are lost and the soil is
compacted.
Death of plant roots: waterlogged soils prevent plant roots getting sufficient
oxygen to respire and cells start to die.
Loss of Nutrients: Nutrients dissolve in the water in soil, and as water drains
away nutrients are taken away with it.
Soil erosion: large amounts of water run-off will take some of the soil particles
with it.
Soil Capping: the surface of the soil can become hard and compact, which
makes it harder for plants to grow through the soil.

Salinisation: the salt content of the soil can increase. Scientist have estimated
that around 20% of irrigated land has become saline in the last 20 years. Salts
dissolve into the water within the soil but are normally at their highest
concentrations deeper in the soil. Over irrigated soils become waterlogged and
therefore the salts are able to move throughout the soil. When the sun causes
evaporation of water from the soil, the salts are left behind. If the salt levels
become too high, plants will have difficulty taking up water (by osmosis) and
water supplies may also become unsuitable for drinking.
Preventing soil cultivation: If the water content is too high, the soil can be too
heavy to cultivate. Machines can get stuck because the soil structure cannot
support their weight.

• overproduction and waste

Waste from over-production: too much of a crop might mean that some will
not be sold.
Waste of storage space: it may take longer to sell a crop, so buildings are
needed to store the spare harvest. Some crops need special conditions so they
do not spoil.
Waste of transportation: to sell all the crop, a farmer may need to travel larger
distances, using more fuel, etc.
Waste of quality produce:
If a crop starts to decrease in quality because it has not been sold quickly
enough, it will be worth less money.
Waste of labour: the farmer may have to staff to help grow and care for the
crop, which is not an efficient use of time and labour if too much crop is
produced.
• exhaustion of mineral ion content

• soil erosion
Large amounts of water run-off will take some of the soil particles with it.

• cash crops replacing food crops

Farmers who earn a profit by growing crops (commercial production) may
make different decisions about which plants to grow. However, the most
profitable product to grow in terms of generating cash may not be the best
choice for the wider community. One example of this conflict is where the
most fertile land, in countries such as Afghanistan, is used to grow poppies for
opium production, either for the legal production of drugs or the illegal drug
trade. Another example is the use of the most fertile land in countries such as
Kenya to produce cut flowers (flowers or flower buds used for decorative use)
for rich countries such as in Europe or North America.
Causes and Impacts of Soil Erosion:
• removal of natural vegetation by over cultivation and overgrazing
Removal of natural vegetation: The demand for land for grazing, crop growing
or timber has had a catastrophic effect on natural habitats. The roots of
existing plants help bind the soil together. Once these are removed, the soil
structure is not strong enough to withstand intense rainfall. Flash flooding and
other rain water run-off picks up top-soil in its path and moves it away from
its original location. Tree roots are useful in slowing down the speed of
flowing torrents of water and providing places for any soil that is carried along
to get trapped and deposited. When vegetation is removed there may be
nothing left to prevent run-off and soil-erosion.
Over cultivation: Soils that are cultivated regularly start to lose soil structure:
ploughing or digging breaks up large clumps into smaller amounts. While this
may be good in the short term for even sowing and the development of
seedlings, the mechanical breakdown of soil means that the smaller particles
are easier to move and more vulnerable to erosion.
Overgrazing: Pressure on grazing land means that the number of live-stock
present can reduce the vegetation to nearly ground level. Constant hard
grazing weakens the plants because they do not have sufficient foliage to
photosynthesize, and therefore they gradually die out. Lack of vegetation
cover means that there are no longer plant roots to hold the soil together and
so the soil becomes vulnerable to erosion. Large numbers of animals within an
area will also trample down the plants, damaging them in the process. Animal
hoofs compact the ground, and compaction reduces the number of air spaces
in the soil, reducing root growth and further weakening the plants.

• water and wind erosion

Removal of vegetation makes the soil far more prone to being blown round by
the wind. The vegetation might be cleared for a number of reasons:
The need for more space, excessive grazing by animals, an increase in the
development of arable crops or the need to remove hedges and boundaries to
allow large machines to operate effectively.
Water is probably one of the most common causes of large scale erosion and a
contributory factor to some of the other types of erosion. Water can erode
soils in a number of ways;
Heavy rainfall:
Rain water run-off:
Gulley erosion:

• loss of habitats

• desertification
Desertification: the process by which fertile land becomes desert.

• silting of rivers

• displacement of people

• malnutrition and famine

Famine: a lack of access to food, often over a large scale.
Malnutrition: not having enough of the correct nutrients to eat, causing ill
health.
Managing soil Erosion:
• terracing
Terracing: the artificial development of flat areas (for growing crops) in a
sloping terrain.
• contour ploughing
Based on a similar principle to terracing, when an area of land is ploughed
there are benefits to ploughing so that the ridges and troughs run along the
contours (rather than up and down) the land. While at a far smaller scale than
that used with terracing, each plough furrow holds water holds water back
and prevents large torrents of water running down the slope, so preventing
the formation of large gullies and the run off of topsoil.

Contour ploughing is suitable in a number of situations and useful on all

gradients of slope. When land is cultivated and left without vegetation for a
period of time, while the seeds start to germinate and emerge, the root system
will be insufficient to bind the soil. If contour ploughing is used, the furrows
help prevent erosion until the plants are established.
• bunds
Often linked to terracing, bunds are artificial banks at the edges of growing
spaces designed to hold back water. This technique is especially useful for
crops (such as rice) that need to be submerged at some stage or require very
moist soils.

• wind breaks
Windbreak: a permeable barrier, made of either living vegetation or artificial
material, used to reduce the impact of the wind on an area.

• maintaining vegetation cover

• addition of organic matter to improve soil structure

A soil is more at risk if it has been left uncovered, if it has been broken down
into small particles and if it is lightweight (and so has a low water content).
This last issue can be addressed by adding more organic matter, such as
animal manure or composted plant material, to the soil. Additional organic
matter has a number of effects:
It provides additional air gaps in heavy soils, increases the number of soil
organisms in the soil (because they are feeding on the organic matter), adds
nutrients to the soil and, regarding soil erosion, improves the general soil
structure. Acting rather like a sponge, organic matter holds extra water,
preventing the soil from drying out (when it is more prone to blowing away).

• planting trees, mixed cropping, intercropping and crop rotation

Tree planting has many advantages:
A row of trees can form a windbreak to protect other crops.
The tree canopy can provide shade for smaller crops that do not naturally
thrive in direct sunlight, for example commercial coffee plants are derived
from species that occupy the understory of a woodland or forest where they
would be shaded by taller trees.
The trees can also provide a natural habitat for animals that feed on the crop
pests, reducing loss of the crop and the costs of buying expensive insecticides.
Tree leaves fall on the ground and will add to the organic matter content of the
soil.
Other cropping systems have many benefits as well. Mixed cropping, growing
more than one type of plant in the same area, means the resources in the soil,
such as nutrients, are used more efficiently. If the plants grow at different
heights, for example, they can use the same space without too much
competition. If one plant has a deeper root system, it can be grown in the same
area as a plant with a shallower root system. A smaller, sturdier plant can act
as a support for a taller, more unstable crop.

Intercropping: A specific type of mixed cropping: rows of a different crop are

grown in between the established rows of the main crop. Typically of shorter
duration than other types of mixed cropping, intercropping is used to
maximize the use of space and other resources in a field. It is often used in
new plantations, when the main tree crop will take a while to mature. Other
plants can be grown at ground level and provide a profit for the farmer while
the main plantation matures.
Crop rotation can also be used to use resources efficiently. Planting different
crops over successive years in the same plot of land reduce the incidence of
pests, improve the quality of the soil and utilize nutrients more effectively.
Sustainable Agriculture:
• organic fertiliser (crop residue, manure)
Maintaining soil fertility is crucial; adding organic matter to the soil is the best
way to retain water and promote a stable soil structure. The main farm
sources are animal manure, crop stubble, and straw.

• managed grazing (livestock rotation)

Grazing: most livestock feeds on the vegetation grown within the farm. While
this can occur randomly, a sustainable, managed approach has a number of
benefits. A managed approach looks at the stocking density in an area and
evaluates an appropriate timescale for allowing the animals to graze before
moving them on to another area.

• crop rotation
The main advantage of crop rotation is maintenance of soil fertility. This is
based on the principle that not all crops use the same nutrients; what one
takes out of the soil, another will give back.

• use of pest resistant and drought resistant varieties of crops

Choice of varieties: plant breeding has led to a huge advancement in the
quality of crops available, not just in terms of their yield but in their reliability.
Some newer varieties are able to cope with situations in which their
predecessors would certainly have failed.

• trickle drip irrigation

Pipes are laid on the surface between or around the crops. Short side pipes, or
holes in the main pipe, direct the water at the plant roots, exactly where it is
needed. This means more water is used by the plant and less is evaporated.
Water is no longer wasted on bare soil between the crops, thus reducing weed
growth.

• rainwater harvesting
It is another example of appropriate technology. This is trapping, collecting,
and storing rainwater which would otherwise have been lost as runoff down
the drains or into streams.
Global water distribution:
• oceans
• fresh water: ice sheets and glaciers, ground water, atmosphere, lakes and
rivers.

Surface water: water in lakes, rivers and swamps.

Groundwater: water in the soil, and in rocks under the surface of the ground.

The water cycle:

• precipitation, surface runoff, interception, infiltration, through-flow, ground
water flow, transpiration, evaporation and condensation.

Evaporation: the process in which liquid water turns into vapour, the opposite
of condensation.

Condensation: the process in which water vapour turns into liquid water, the
opposite of evaporation.

Precipitation: the process in which liquid water (as rain) or ice particles (as
snow or hail) fall to Earth due to gravity

Transpiration: the movement of water up plants and its subsequent loss as

water vapour from their leaves.

Surface run-off: the process by which water runs over the ground into rivers.

Interception: the process by which precipitation is stopped from reaching the

ground surface by the presence of trees and other plants.

Infiltration: the process by which water seeps into the ground

Through flow: the process by which infiltrated water flows through the soil

Groundwater flow: the process by which infiltrated water flows through rocks.

Water supply:
• aquifers, wells, rivers, reservoirs, desalination plants
Aquifer: water stored in porous rocks under the ground.

Well: a hole bored or dug into rock to reach the water stored there.

Reservoir: an artificial lake where water can be stored.

Desalination: the removal of salt from water.

Water Usage:
• domestic, industrial, agricultural
Domestic:
In the home water is, of course, used for drinking and cooking, but this only
accounts for about 3% of domestic use. In more economically developed
countries (MEDCs) about 50% of domestic water is used for washing and
flushing the toilet and a further 20% for washing clothes. Much less domestic
water is used for washing, flushing the toilet and laundry in less economically
developed countries (LEDCs), although the actual proportions vary. In some
situations quite a lot of water is used for watering the garden and a substantial
amount is often lost in leaks. The proportions of these uses and losses varies.
Water for domestic use needs to be especially safe.

Industrial:
Water is used in a vast range of Industrial processes. One of the largest uses is
for cooling in the production of electricity. Another use of water relies on the
fact that a very wide range of substances is soluble in it. Water is often
described as the universal solvent.

Agriculture:
By far the greatest use of water in agriculture is for irrigation. The use of water
for irrigation often forms the largest proportion of water use for a whole
country. Plants need water to transport minerals and food, to keep their cells
rigid and to combine with carbon dioxide to make food in photosynthesis. This
means that, for successful growth of crops, a reliable supply of water will be
need. In addition, domestic animals require a reliable source of water.

Water Quality and Availability:

• between water-rich and water poor regions and the potential for water
conflict

• access to safe drinking water in urban and rural areas

Multipurpose dam Projects:

The construction of a dam across a river can be very expensive and
controversial project, but the benefits are usually great. In many cases dams
are constructed with a number of aims in mind. A dam may help with:

The generation of electricity in hydroelectric power plants.

Flood control.
Irrigation.
Tourism and leisure.
The provision of water
Creation of habitat for wetland species.
Access by boat to otherwise inaccessible areas.

The disadvantages of dam projects include:

Relocating people.
Flooding land.
Disrupting the life cycles of fish and other aquatic organisms.
Altering the water supply for people downstream of the dam.
Reducing the enrichment of soil downstream of the dam (which natural
flooding of the original river course would have contributed to).
The dam may become redundant as sediment in the river sinks to the bottom
of the reservoir (siltation)

• choice of site
Deciding where to build a dam requires detailed study of many factors. It has
to be in a river valley and, for economic reasons, the valley should be quite
narrow where the dam is built. A wider valley would require a more costly,
wider dam. A dam also needs to be quite high up a valley if it is to be
successful at producing hydroelectric power (HEP). The higher it is, the
greater the pressure of water, which means it will have more potential energy.
Dams should be sited away from developed areas if possible, to reduce the risk
of pollution in the reservoir.
• environmental, economic and social impacts
Dam can also have negative effects on the surrounding environment, including
fish populations.
• sustainability
Dams are often thought of as a permanent solution to electricity generation.
However, there are sometimes problems with their operation in the long term.
The reservoir can become silted due to the material carried into it by rivers.
The dam structure, which is under a lot of pressure, can deteriorate and
eventually fail. Dam can also have negative effects on the surrounding
environment, including fish populations. These problems suggest that dams
are not necessarily sustainable solutions.
The opposite view is that dams are a far superior alternative to the burning of
fossil fuels because they produce electricity without producing greenhouse
gases and pollutants.

Water pollution and its sources:

• domestic waste, including sewage from urban and rural settlements

• industrial processes

• agricultural practices

Impact of water pollution:

• global inequalities in sewage and water treatment

• risk of infectious bacterial diseases, typhoid and cholera

Water provides a very good habitat for many living things. Because of the
presence of plants in water and their ability to photosynthesize, there is plenty
of food in water. Water provides a nutrient rich environment for bacteria.
Bacteria may enter drinking water from sewage if sanitation is poor. If these
bacteria are pathogens, (an organism, including bacteria and viruses, that can
cause disease) and the water in which they live is drunk untreated, diseases
can be spread.
Two major diseases caused by water contaminated with human faces are
cholera and typhoid.
• accumulation of toxic substances from industrial processes in lakes
and rivers
• bioaccumulation of toxic substances in food chains
Bioaccumulation: the build-up of a substance in the body of a living thing.

• the effect of acid rain on organisms in rivers and lakes

When water in a river or lake is acidified, the lower pH makes it intolerable to
organisms. Fish egg-lying is often reduced and young fish are malformed. Acid
rain can also lead to leaching (the movement of a soluble chemical or mineral
away from soil, usually caused by the action of rain water) of heavy metals
such as aluminum, lead and mercury, from the soil into the water. This leads to
further harmful effects. Aluminum for example clogs fish gills and can cause
suffocation. Another effect is that some minerals essential for life, notably
calcium and potassium, are washed out of the lake or river. This reduces algal
growth leaving less food for fish and other animals. The direct and indirect
effects of acid rain and runoff of heavy metals from surrounding sils effect the
whole eco-system.

• nutrient enrichment leading to eutrophication

Eutrophication: a sequence events starting with enrichment of water by
mineral nutrients or organic matter that leads to a reduction in oxygen levels
in the water and the death of fish and other animals.
Managing pollution of fresh water:
• improved sanitation

• treatment of sewage
Sewage: waste matter that is carried away in sewers or drains from domestic
(or industrial) establishments.
• pollution control and legislation

Managing water related disease:

• antimalarial drugs, vector control, eradication
Vector: an organism that carries a disease-producing organism, such as
mosquito which carries the malarial parasite.

• safe drinking water (potable water) supply

Water that is fit for domestic use such as drinking, washing and cooking is
called potable water. To make water potable it undergoes coagulation
treatment, and is filtered and disinfected.
Coagulants make particles in the water stick together and settle to the bottom
of the container. The water is than filtered through sand. To kill any disease
causing organisms (pathogens) that may remain, chlorine is added to the
filtered water as a disinfectant, this process is called chlorination.

• boiling and chlorination

Chlorination: adding chlorine based substances to water.
Oceans as a resource
• outline the resource potential of the oceans
The bountiful oceans
Only 29% of the surface of the Earth is actually land, leaving the oceans
covering 71%. The vast majority of this area, however, remains relatively
unknown. Only about 10% of the ocean is over the continental shelf, where the
water is relatively shallow. The remaining 90% of the ocean is over an abyss.
Not only are these deep regions almost impossible to access, they are
also very unproductive. Over 50% of the biological productivity of the oceans
occurs in the 10% that is over the continental shelves, and 95% of all
commercially caught fish are found here too. So despite its vast size, its depth
and low productivity mean the ocean is relatively minor source of food
for humans. Land based agriculture production stands at over 6 billion tonnes
whereas the total food obtained from the ocean is only about 90 million
tonnes. However, most of the food harvested from the ocean is animal based
and so rich in proteins, fats and oils, which are much needed by those living at
subsistence level.
The ocean has appeared so vast to humans in the past that we have tended to
assume we can have no effect on either it or its ecosystems. However, it is now
becoming clear that fish stocks are declining because of overfishing and
pollution, by such things as oil, mercury and rubbish, is becoming a huge
problem, even in the open ocean. For example, over 250,000 tonnes of waste
plastic are currently circulating in five huge ocean regions known as gyres. It is
estimated that an ambitious plan to clean this plastic up will take nearly 50
years, but it will achieve nothing if we carry on dumping plastic.
The message is clear, the ocean is a very important part of life on earth. It
probably still has much to offer us but our use of it needs to be better managed
in the future then it has been in the past.

• food, chemicals, building materials

Food
By far the most important resource that humans obtain from the oceans is
fish. This term can be used to include true fish, or finfish, but also shellfish and
other animals that live in the sea and can be eaten. World fishery yields are
about 90 million tons per year, with over 80 million tons of that coming from
the sea. The main fisheries are located on the continental shelves. This is
because the water is Shallow there, so light can penetrate and there is more
oxygen than further down. In addition, nutrients from the land are abundant
on the shelf. All these features make the continental shelf a good place for the
growth of plants and therefore the fish that depend on them.

Chemicals and Building Materials.

As oceans cover 71% of the world’s surface and 3.5 % of seawater is made up
of dissolved substances, it is hardly surprising that these water bodies are an
enormous potential resource of chemicals. Compounds containing more than
60 chemical elements are dissolved in seawater.
Many materials in the oceans have been eroded from the land, where rain and
wind break down rocks. These particles and dissolved substances are carried
into the oceans via rivers. Some of these substances can be extracted directly,
including;
salt
magnesium
gold (in estuaries)
tin
Titanium
Diamonds.
In coastal sites lagoons are made from sand. The sea is allowed in through a
gap which is then blocked. The seawater is then left to evaporate over many
weeks in the hot sun, leaving behind sea salt that can be collected.
The ocean floor is mined for many substances, diamonds, for example are
found in greater numbers on the ocean floor than on land. However, it is much
harder to mine the ocean floor because it has to be dredged and then the
sediment shifted.
Sand, gravel and crushed rock are mined for the construction industry,
including housing and road building. Care must be taken with their removal,
however, because physical damage can be caused to the seabed and associated
habitats. In addition, fine particles clouds are produced that then resettle, and
these interfere with photosynthesis and act as a source of heavy metals that
can enter food chains.
As the meaning of land depletes the sources of minerals there, mining the
ocean floor will increase.
One of the most well-known Chemicals derived from the sea is oil. Offshore
drilling has become commonplace, with thousands of drilling rigs scattered
around the oceans of the world. The world's largest Offshore oil field, in the
gulf of Mexico, has nearly 4000 active rigs.

• wave / tidal energy

There is an enormous amount of energy in the waves that break on the shores
all around the world. It is estimated that if this energy could be harvested it
would be to twice the present world energy production, as much as that
provided by 2000 large power stations. However, it is not easy to harness this
energy, a number of devices have been trialed but only a few are in regular
use. Examples include the Islay LIMPET (Land-installed marine powered
energy transformer) on the West Coast of Scotland, and the Agucadoura wave
farm off Northern Portugal. The latter is sadly non-operational at the moment
but when it was in use generated 2.25 megawatts of power (2.25 MW) and
was the biggest wave farm in the world. The Islay LIMPET produces 0.25
megawatt. The technology is still very much in its infancy but could become
important in the future as fossil fuels run out.
There has been a little more success with tidal power. Because of the varying
gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon, water in the Sea moves up and down
on a twice daily basis. This causes it to come onto land and then later recede,
and this movement can be harnessed to generate electricity. The first such
power station was built at Strangford Loch in Northern Ireland, generating 1.2
megawatts of power.
This has now been dwarfed by the Sihwa Lake Tidal power station in South
Korea, the largest in the world generating 254 megawatts, and another at
Rance in France, the second largest generating 240 megawatts. There are
many proposed projects. At Penzin Bay in North East Russia, the penzhin tidal
Power Plant project is a proposal that could generate up to 87100 megawatts
because of the 9 m tidal range in the bay.
• tourism
The seaside has been a major tourist attraction for centuries. The Romans
enjoyed sea, Sun and sand in Baiae when in Rome and on Mersae when in
England, over 2000 years ago. Today, with the advent of cheap foreign travel
by air, people in the more economically developed countries of the world are
attracted to Marine sites of great natural beauty, especially coral reefs. Around
the Caribbean, the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean (for example the Maldives) and
on the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, visitors in their hundreds of thousands
arrive every year. Diving, snorkeling, windsurfing, jet skiing are just some of
the activities for the more adventurous, but many are content simply to
sun-bathe on the beach. Away from the Shore, deep sea fishing is a very
popular pastime. In addition, there is a big business in boat trips to view the
creatures of the sea, especially whales and dolphins. Whale watching began in
the mid-1950s off the coast of California as a chance event. It was not until
whaling was banned in the early 1980s that people began to see watching
whales as an economic alternative to killing them. It is estimated that whale
watching contributes over 2 billion US dollars to the world economy. In
1880, the entire United States whaling effort yielded $10 million, which is
about 250 million dollars today. There are few better examples showing the
value of living things compared with dead things.
• transport
Transport
Always been an important way of transporting people and goods. Today, shipping is less
important for moving people because of the advent of aviation. However, pleasure cruises are
still an important economic sector and bulk freight is still best transported from country to
country on ships. There are currently over 50000 merchant (goods-carrying) ships registered
around the world. The level of shipping activity in the world is showing the diagram

• potential for safe drinking water

Potential for safe drinking water
With the world's population now in excess of 7 billion, many essential commodities could become
harder to obtain. Possibly the most essential of these is safe drinking water. However, that only a
very small proportion of the water on Earth is safe to drink. Water that is salty is not safe to drink
because your body has to remove the salt, which would require more water. It is possible to derive
safe drinking water from salt water by desalination.

World fisheries
World fisheries
As mentioned, over 90 million tons of fish (in the widest sense of the world) are harvested every
year. Fish are always important as a source of protein for people, but are especially important in
some countries of the world such as Japan. In order to understand where large numbers of fish can
be found you need to study ocean currents and the food webs of the sea.

• identify the position of major cold and warm ocean currents (names are not required)
• outline the distribution of major ocean currents
Major Ocean Currents
Currents, or strictly speaking surface currents, are caused mainly by wind. At any particular place in
the world the nature of the prevailing wind can be described. This refers to the direction in which
the wind most commonly blows at that place. Surface currents are ultimately caused by these winds.
However, the final direction depends very much on the shape of the land around the ocean at any
particular point.

Surface current:
Movement of the surface water of the sea in a constant direction.

Prevailing wind:
the direction from which the wind nearly always blows in a particular area

The currents in the southern hemisphere are generally anticlockwise as the winds blow from the
south-east and force the Western Australian, Benguela and Peruvian currents northwards. An
important aspect of a current is whether it is warm or cold. Looking at the map of currents you will
notice that cold currents come from the North or South Pole, whereas the warm currents come
either from the tropics or flow along either side of the equator.

Finding the Fish

Fish are animals and so cannot make their own food. Herbivorous fish rely on the primary
producers of the sea, which are nearly always green algae called phytoplankton. Carnivorous fish eat
the herbivorous ones or other carnivores. They are part of a food web, starting with phytoplankton.
So fish are found where conditions are good for phytoplankton.
Phytoplankton make their own food by photosynthesis. This process requires light, water and
carbon dioxide. Water is obviously available everywhere in the oceans and carbon dioxide easily
dissolves in water from the atmosphere. Light is therefore likely to be the limiting factor for
photosynthesis. Water absorbs light energy and most ocean water has absorbed all of the sunlight
by the depth of only 200m. This 200 m deep zone is called the euphotic zone. Below this
photosynthesis will not happen. This is one reason why fish are found where the water is
shallower. Shallow water is found over the continental shelves, which are usually no more than 150
m below sea level. Major fisheries are also found on the continental shelves.

Phytoplankton:
Small organisms in the sea that can make their own food and upon which almost all other sea
creatures depend for their food.

Limiting factor:
Of all the factors that might affect a process, the one that is in shortest supply
Euphotic zone:
the top 200 m or so of sea water through which light can penetrate and in which
photosynthesis can happen.

• describe the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon and its effects on fisheries
along the Pacific coast of South America

You will notice that there are some areas where there are continental shelves but no significant
fisheries. In addition to light, carbon dioxide and water, which allows the phytoplankton to make
carbohydrates such as sugars, they also need mineral nutrients to make proteins. Making proteins
requires a source of nitrogen and sulphur. Nucleic acids, which form the genes of living things,
also require phosphorus. The green pigment chlorophyll, which is essential for photosynthesis in
plants, requires magnesium. A lack of these mineral nutrients, even when there is plenty of light,
water and carbon dioxide, will reduce the growth of phytoplankton. This in turn prevents there
being very many fish. The most important fisheries of the world are where the current system stirs
up decaying material from the sea bed. This material is rich in mineral nutrients. One of the most
famous, and also the largest, fishery in the world is the Peruvian anchovy fishery off the West Coast
of South America. Here, cold water is forced upwards near the coast of Peru, leading to nutrient rich
surface water in this area; this is called upwelling. Because of its effect on phytoplankton growth,
this area supports very large fish populations, mainly of the small herring-like fish, the anchoveta.
At its peak, this single fishery yielded in excess of 12 million tons of fish. However, the fishery
suffered an enormous collapse in the early 1970s. Part of the reason for this was over-fishing,
which meant that the fish were being caught before they could breed, although was not the only
problem.
The upwelling described above is disturbed approximately once every 10 to 15 years by an event
called the El Nino Southern oscillation, also called the ENSO or just the El Nino. It is not fully
understood why this change in the pattern of currents in this region occurs. However, it is known
that there is a change to the normal trade winds. El Nino leads to warm, nutrient-poor water coming
into the region from the equator. The effect of this is to stop the upwelling of the cold, nutrient-rich
water that supports the anchovy fishery. A lack of nutrients means the phytoplankton do not grow
well, so there is less food for the fish. The El Nino of 1972 was a very large one and, combined with
over-fishing, led to the collapse.
In the 1970s and still today, much of the production of the anchovy fishery was used for fishmeal.
This fishmeal is used to feed farmed fish, and so countries where this is an important Industry, such
as the UK, are affected by a crash in the anchovy fishery.

Upwelling
Areas where minerals at the ocean floor are brought to the surface by currents
Overfishing
when the number of Fish that is caught is greater than the rate at which the fish reproduce,
leading to a fall in fish numbers in an area

ENSO ( El Nino Southern Oscillation):

The change in the prevailing winds that leads to a change in the pattern of currents in the oceans of
the south Pacific.

• overfishing of marine species

Overfishing of marine fish species

The global fish catch grew every year from 1950 until the late 1980s. Since then there have been
fluctuations but no trend of growth.
This lack of growth is probably explained, at least partially, by over-fishing. At least 75% of the
world's marine fisheries are threatened. The main reason for fishing used to be economic gain. This
model leads to a fishery in which the number of fish caught is based on how many are available.
Sustainable fishing involves monitoring how many fish are left in order to provide for the next
generation of fishers and their customers.

• effect on target and bycatch species

The yield from world fisheries has only remained constant because it has been possible to switch
to new species. A look at some of the major food providers of the past provides strong evidence
for overfishing. One of the best examples is the fate of the North Atlantic herring. It is estimated
that, during the 1950s, 3,000 million herring per year were caught and brought to ports in the UK.
The stock of fish at that time is estimated to have been about 2 million tonnes. Fishing based on how
maghtny fish are available led to an increase in the size and power of the fishing boats. By the
early 1970s, hardly any herring were left, the stock being less than 100 000 tonnes.
The symptoms of severe over-fishing are a reduced catch at the same time as an increased fishing
effort. Another symptom is that the size of fish caught gets progressively smaller.
The target species is not the only casualty of over-fishing. Wherever fish are caught commercially,
the wrong species, the wrong sex or individuals that are too small are also caught. These non-target
individuals are referred to as bycatch. Shrimp fisheries are known to have the biggest bycatch of all.
Worldwide, it is estimated that for every shrimp caught nearly six other fish are also caught. Shrimp
fisheries account for only 2% of the world fishery catch but more than 30% of the world’s by catch.
A very well known example of bycatch is in the tuna fishery, where dolphins can become entangled
in the tuna nets. The general public has become so concerned about this form of bycatch that tinned
tuna often carries the label ‘dolphin friendly’ to reassure customers.
The most obvious cause of overfishing is the increasing demand for fish as food. However,
technology and improved fishing methods have also played a major part. Much bigger boats, which
can work a long way from a port for many weeks, are used now than in the past. In addition, it is
now possible to find fish very easily using SONAR and detailed weather data.
However, possibly the most important development has been the creation of huge nets. These nets
can scoop up everything in an area, including unwanted fish and other species. Almost half of what
is caught in such a net is regularly discarded as bycatch. The following list provides some examples
of these huge nets.

Bycatch: animals caught by fishers that are not the intended target of their fishing effort.

Trawl nets, including bottom trawl nets, catch all kinds of unwanted species and damage the seabed
during their use

Drift nets, as their name suggests, drift with the current and are not anchored. These are often used
in coastal waters

Various kinds of seine net, including the purse seine, hang like a curtain in the water. A variant
called the surrounding net is often used

dredge nets are dragged along the seabed, mainly to catch shellfish and other types of fish living in
the mud. For this reason they dig into the sea-bed with teeth or water jets.

Farming Marine Species

Catching fish from the sea, a lake or a river is one of the few remaining ways in which modern
humans act as a hunter-gatherers. Because of a decline in wild fish populations, people are
increasingly farming fish. Farming fresh-water fish, aquaculture, has been carried out for hundreds
of years. Many Central European countries have numerous fishponds that were constructed in
the middle ages. Considering fish in the broadest sense, farming various shell fish has also been
practiced for hundreds of years and can be a very important source of both income and food.
With mussels, strings are hung from a raft and the mussels then grow on the strings. Yields as high
250 tonnes per hectare have been achieved.

Farming marine fish (mariculture) is generally much more difficult than farming freshwater species
and has not been enormously successful so far. One issue is that the species we prefer to eat are
carnivorous fish. This means they are at the top of food chains and require a range of other species
on which to feed. Furthermore, the food preferences of the young fish change as they get older.
Cobia (Rachycentron canadum) is one of the best candidates so far for warm-water aquaculture. It
has a rapid growth rate and its high-quality meat achieves a good price.
Mariculture is carried out in the USA, Mexico and Panama as well as parts of Asia. Asia has the
largest Open Water fish farms in the world. However, the single largest such farm is found off the
coast of Panama, using cobia. In 2013 the US Food and Agriculture Organization website reported
40 395 tons of cobia being cultured around the world. Other marine fish being harvested include
threadfin and bigeye tuna. The most productive form of mariculture is salmon farming, although the
fish is only marine for part of its life. The biggest Salmon fish farms are found in Chile, Norway,
Scotland, Canada and the Faroe Islands. By 1996 the production of farmed Salmon exceeded that of
wild caught fish. This apparent success is not without its problems, however. There are a number of
concerns surrounding the farming of Salmon. Farmed fish are much more susceptible to diseases
and parasites than wild fish. Wastes from the cages in which the fish are kept can pollute the
environment, and fish escaping from a farm can cause problems in the local environment.

Strategies for managing the harvesting of marine species

Every country with the coastline has a zone of 200 nautical miles around it designated by the
United Nations (UN). Convention on the law of the sea as the economic exclusion zone. Inside this
zone the country responsible must attempt to manage its fisheries so that they are sustainable. A
variety of strategies exist to do this.

• net types and mesh size

Net types and mesh size and shape.

Certain net types, such as the driftnet mentioned above, are now banned from use in certain areas.
A more important consideration, however, is the mesh size of the net. If the mesh is too small, the
net will catch juvenile fish. If this happens the number of fish available to grow to maturity and
reproduce is reduced.
For example, the General fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) adopted an
agreement that stated a minimum 40 millimetre square-mesh cod end (the closed end of the net)
or a diamond-mesh size of at least 50 mm should be used for all trawling activities exploiting
demersal (bottom-living) fish and shellfish. A diamond-shaped mesh catches fish more easily and
for this reason a square mesh panel is often included in an otherwise diamond net.

Other methods of fishing

Where using nets is not a viable option, more targeted methods can be used. A good example of
this comes from the tuna fisheries. Many fishers use fish aggregation devices (FADs) for these
species, which includes using a log suspended below the surface of the sea from a buoy. This
attracts the tuna together with other species, including tuna predators. Once a good
aggregation of fish has collected, they are gathered up in a giant net. This will take all the other
species and younger Tuna fish with it, leading to a large byecatch. A solution is to use the pole
and line method for catching the tuna. Done properly, this method is highly selective with very
little or no bycatch. For those conscious about the bycatch, which includes Dolphins, in the tuna
industry, canned tuna that clearly states that it is from a pole and line fishery is now available.

• quotas
Quotas
Many fisheries scientists and others believe that the imposition of quotas is one of the most
important ways in which fisheries can be managed. Legislators, usually governments but
sometimes multinational organisations (such as the European Union), set limits on how many and
what type of fish may be caught. Fisheries research scientist use a wealth of information gathered
from networks across the world to help the legislators set sensible limits. If they get it right, enough
fish should be left to reproduce and replenish the fishery for the following season. A 2008 study
showed that a fishery managed with a quota system is half as likely to fail as one that is unmanaged.

• closed seasons
• protected areas and reserves

Closed season and protected areas

In a way similar to the setting of quotas, governments and other legislative bodies can also
pass laws that can close fisheries down for part of the Year. This is most commonly done
during the breeding season.
As with quotas and closed seasons, some fisheries are protected by preventing fishing in certain
areas, often where the target species is known to breed.
• conservation laws
• international agreements
(implementation and monitoring)

International agreements and conservation laws

Some fisheries are protected by conservation laws. For example, the Magnuson-Stevens fishery
conservation and management act is the main law governing Marine fisheries in the USA. It was
first passed in 1976 and has undergone numerous amendments. Its aims include controlling the
country's territorial waters, conserving fishery resources and enforcing International fishing
agreements. It also aims to develop under-used fisheries and protect fish habitats.
As mentioned above, an economic exclusion zone of 200 nautical miles surrounds most countries
with the coastline. Inside such zones it is the right and responsibility of that country to manage its
fisheries. However, to regulate fisheries in international waters, international agreements are
needed. This led to the UN convention on the law of the sea (UNCLOS). A good example of where
such agreement is needed is the Mediterranean. In this narrow body of water, a 200 nautical mile
exclusion zone has no meaning. The countries bordering the sea operate 12 nautical miles zone and
beyond that agreements between them have to be reached.
These agreements are monitored to varying levels of success by different countries. A model system
is that operated by the African country of Namibia. Here, larger vessels in its waters have onboard
observers, air patrols detect and deter unlicensed vessels and all landings are monitored at the
country’s two fishing ports. In addition, all the vessels in the exclusion zone must keep daily logs of
their catches.

How well do these strategies work?

Any law or agreement is only as good as the level of enforcement that goes with it. Because of the
vastness of the oceans it is difficult to monitor fishery laws and agreements. Monitoring
organizations based in ports have more success. Because fishing is important for both income
and food for many people, there is a huge incentive for illegal activities. Quotas can easily be avoided
by simply not declaring how many fish are being caught. Overstretched authorities may not be able
to check every boat, and fishers maybe willing to risk under-declaring the size of their catch and not
being checked. It is not difficult to use a net with an illegally small Mesh size, and in areas where
patrols are inadequate, fishers frequently trespass in areas where they are not supposed to fish.

The new found land COD fishery

Off the coast of Western Canada is an area called the Grand banks. For more than 500 years, this
area was known for having huge numbers of fish, especially cod. Indigenous peoples and early
settlers were able to feed themselves and make a living from this fishery. The stock never seemed
to be affected and, after the second world war, commercial fisheries were attracted to the area

• explain the distribution of major marine fish populations

• shallow water of continental shelves

• cold and warm ocean currents

5.3 Impact of exploitation of the oceans

• describe and explain the impact of exploitation of fisheries
• describe how farming of marine species reduces the exploitation of fisheries
5.4 Management of the harvesting of marine species
• describe, explain and evaluate strategies for management of the harvesting of marine species
• other species-specific methods:
pole and line
Natural hazard
A natural hazard is a physical event that has the potential to cause loss of life or injury and damage
property and infrastructure. Livelihoods can be lost and the environment damaged. They can be
short-term events that last just a few minutes or long term events that can happen over several
years. Natural hazards can be classified in a number of different ways. The most common
classification is based on the cause of the hazard, including:

geological hazards, for example earthquakes and volcanic eruptions

climatic hazards, for example droughts, tropical cyclones, floods.

Other ways in which natural hazards can be classified are based on the

the magnitude or intensity of the event

speed at which the event takes place

duration of the event

frequency of the event.

The term natural hazard does not just mean physical events occurring in the natural world. People
and property need to be put at risk by the physical event for it to be called a natural hazard. Volcanic
explosions may look dramatic but it has been estimated that half of all death attributed to eruptions
are from just five recorded events. The natural hazard that occurs most frequently is flooding, but
between 1994 and 2014 it was earthquakes that killed the most people.
A natural disaster is when there is serious disruption to a community caused by a natural hazard,
which can involve social, economic and environmental losses or impacts. A natural disaster follows
a natural hazard.
Natural hazard (for example flooding) + factors affecting possible risk (for example high population
density) = natural disaster (for example many people killed)
For a disaster to be entered into the database of the United Nation’s International strategy for
disaster reduction (ISDR), at least one of the following conditions must be met:
a report of 10 or more people killed
a report of hundred or more people affected

a state of emergency declared by the government of the affected country

a request by the relevant national government for international assistance.

The impact of a natural disaster on a community will depend on the:

length of time people are exposed to the natural hazard

vulnerability of the people affected

people's ability to cope with the effects.

What causes earthquakes and volcanic eruptions?

The theory of plate tectonics was developed in the 1960 and helps us understand the movement of
the Earth’s surface. It also helps explain the global distribution and causes of features and landforms
such as volcanoes, earthquakes and mountain ranges called fold mountains.
Vulnerability: the characteristics and circumstances of people in a community that make them
susceptible to the impacts of a natural hazard

Plate tectonics: a theory developed in the 1960s that helps explain the formation of some of the
important features on the Earth’s surface and how the continents move.

Fold mountains: mountains created where two or more tectonic plates are pushed together,
compressing the rocks and folding them upwards.

It is important to try and remember the differences between oceanic and Continental crust because
it will help you understand the processes you are going to learn about in the theory of plate
tectonics. The earth’s surface is not a continuous layer. It is fractured and the sections are called
tectonic plates. The plates are made up of crust and upper mantle. This is called the lithosphere. The
surface of the earth is divided into 7 major and 8 minor plates.

The largest plates are the Antarctic, Eurasian and North American. Plates can be continental,
oceanic or a mixture of both. Continental plates are on average 100 km thick and lighter than
oceanic plates. Plates float like rafts on the mantle. Heat from the core creates convection currents
in the magma of the mantle and these cause plates to move. Where the Convection currents rise to
the surface the plates move away from each other. Where Convection currents sink, plates move
towards each other. Most plates only move a few millimetres each year. The place where two plates
meet is called a plate boundary or plate margin. Plates can move away from, towards or sideways
past each other.

Most earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur along or close to plate boundaries. However, not all
tectonic hazards are found at plate boundaries. Some volcanoes are found above ‘hotspots’ and
earthquakes can occur where ever the crust moves. You can use the internet and textbooks to find
examples of volcanoes and earthquakes that do not fit the expected pattern, and investigate the
reasons why.
Lithosphere: the outer and rigid layer of the earth, comprising the crust and upper part of the
mantle

Convection currents: transfer heat from place to place, denser colder fluid sinks into warmer areas,
heat from the Earth’s core causes convection currents in the mantle

Plate boundary: where two or more plates meet, the three main types of plate boundary are
constructive, destructive and conservative.
Characteristics of earthquakes
An earthquake is when the ground shakes or moves in sudden jerks. Earthquakes result from a
buildup and sudden release of tension, usually along a fault line. The focus is where the earthquake
begins underground, and the point on the earth’s surface, directly above, is called the epicenter. The
release of tension, sends out shock waves (seismic waves) that travel outwards from the focus. The
magnitude of an earthquake is measured on the Richter scale by an instrument called a
seismometer. During an earthquake, faults or cracks may appear on the Earth's surface, the ground
may suffer from liquefaction if it is made of loose sediments, and aftershocks can occur. A tsunami
can also be created if an earthquake occurs under the sea or in a coastal area.
The number of deaths and injuries caused by an earthquake does not just depend on the magnitude.
Other factors that must be considered are:

The location of the epicenter, because the closer to the epicenter the greater the damage

the time of the earthquake, because if the earthquake occurs during winter months or at night there
is often a greater loss of life

the geology of the area, which determines whether liquefaction takes place
[Liquefaction: Soil liquefaction occurs when a saturated or partially saturated soil substantially
loses strength and stiffness in response to an applied stress such as shaking during an earthquake
or other sudden change in stress condition, in which material that is ordinarily a solid behaves like a
liquid.]

the relief of the area, because, for example, mountainous areas can suffer from landslides and
coastal areas can suffer from tsunamis

the severity of the aftershocks, which can cause already damaged buildings to collapse
the level of development of the human settlement, which will affect its ability to cope with the
impact

the population density and associated building density

building strength.

Island arc: a chain of volcanoes, generally with an arc shape, that run parallel to an oceanic trench
at a destructive (oceanic-oceanic) plate boundary
[Arc: Strictly speaking, an arc could be a portion of some other curved shape, such as an ellipse, but
it almost always refers to a circle]

Collision zone: a destructive plate boundary between two continental plates, resulting in fold
mountains

Focus: the location under the Earth’s surface where an earthquake originates

Epicenter: the point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus of an earthquake
Richter scale: a measure of the magnitude of an earthquake, taken with a seismograph and with the
scale of 1 to 10, 10 being the most powerful, it is a logarithmic scale which means that if an
earthquake measures 2 on the scale it is 10 times more powerful than an earthquake that measures
one
Liquefaction: the process where loose sediments with a high water content behave like a liquid
when shaken by an earthquake

Tsunami: a large wave created by ocean floor displacement or landslides

Characteristics of volcanoes
There are two types of volcanic activity

Intrusive, when magma cools underground to form igneous rock

Extrusive, when magma flows out onto the Earth's surface as Lava

A volcano is a hole or crack (fissure) through which magma erupts onto the surface. Gases and
pyroclastic material can also be erupted. Most volcanoes are a mixture of solidified magma and ash,
which build up over time with each eruption to form a volcanic mountain or cone. There are many
hazards associated with an eruption such as lahars.
When magma erupts at the surface it can form different types of volcanoes depending on the
viscosity (stickiness) of the magma and the amount of gas in it.

Pyroclastic material: very hot gases, ash and volcanic bombs, pyroclastic flows can reach speeds of
over 100 kilometres per hour at temperatures of 200 to 700 degree centigrade

Lahars: mudflows of volcanic material, caused when ash mixes with heavy rain or water from
melting snow
Characteristics of tropical cyclones
A tropical cyclone can be up to 800 km in diameter and up to 20 km in height. Tropical cyclones
usually last for a week, moving 17-32 km per hour. They rotate in an anticlockwise direction around
the eye (the calmest part of the storm) in the Northern hemisphere and in a clockwise direction in
the southern hemisphere.
The typical weather expected as a tropical cyclone passes over an area is listed below

Sky becomes cloudy, wind speed increases, rain with sunny intervals.

Air pressure falls, wind speed continues to increase to over 119 km per hour. Large cumulonimbus
clouds form and very heavy rainfalls. This is the eyewall or vortex

in the eye of the storm the sky is clear, winds are light and there is little rain. Temperatures are
warm

After the eye has passed cumulonimbus clouds form again, with the return of heavy rain and strong
winds.
Wind speed and rainfall decreases. Sunny intervals.
Tropical cyclones create the following hazards:

strong winds can cause structural damage to buildings

heavy rainfall can lead to river flooding and landslides

storm surges can lead to flooding in low lying coastal areas, the intense low pressure can raise sea
levels and strong winds can push waves up to 5 m high inland.

What causes flooding

Between 1995 and 2015, floods caused 47% of all weather-related disasters, affecting 2.3 billion
people and killing 157000 people worldwide. Flooding is when the discharge of a river exceeds the
capacity of the river’s channel. When this occurs, the river overflows the banks and covers the
adjacent floodplain. Heavy rainfall is the cause of most floods.

Storm hydrographs
A storm hydrograph shows how quickly a river responds to a rainfall event. The water can reach the
river by overland flow, through flow and groundwater flow.
The shorter the lag time and the steeper the rising limb, the quicker the water reaches the river
(flash response) and the greater the chance of flooding. The shape of storm hydrographs vary
between river drainage basins and are useful for planning against future flooding and times of
drought.

Discharge: the volume of water passing a measuring point or gauging station in a given time,
measured in cubic meters per second (cumecs).
Lag time: the time difference between peak rainfall and peak discharge

Infiltration capacity: the maximum rate that water enters soil

Antecedent soil moisture: the amount of moisture present in the soil before a rainfall event

Impermeable: does not allow water to pass through

Percolation: the vertical movement of water from the soil into the underlying rock

Interception: the process by which vegetation prevents rainfall from reaching the surface directly,
the intercepted rainfall is temporarily held as interception storage and then either falls directly to
the ground or is evaporated back to the atmosphere.

What causes droughts

Drought is when there is a lack of rain or less rain than normal over a long period of time. It can lead
to a deficit in the water supply, with insufficient water to support plants, animals and people.
Droughts can occur anywhere but they are particularly common in Africa. Between 1995 and 2015,
136 droughts were recorded in Africa, and 77 of those were in East Africa.
Most droughts occur when regular weather patterns are interrupted and evaporation exceeds
precipitation. There are various reasons why this can happen.

Changes in atmospheric circulation patterns altering storm tracks and wind patterns. An example of
this is patterns that prevent the northwards movement of the inter tropical convergence zone
(ITCZ) into the Sahel region of Africa, which means that the moist rising air at the ITCZ does not
move north to reach the Sahel.

Air in a high pressure system sinks and rain clouds generally do not form. If the sinking air covers a
larger area than normal or becomes prolonged, droughts can occur

The El Nino Southern Oscillation (El Nino) is a weather event where the surface water in the Pacific
Ocean along South America rises in temperature. These warmer waters alter storm patterns and
can cause droughts in Australia. La Nina is the counterpart to El Nino: the surface water in the
Pacific ocean along South America decreases in temperature. The cooler water contributes to drier
conditions in parts of North and South America. While El Nino usually lasts less than a year, La Nina
can last for 1-3 years.

There is a lot of debate about the connection between drought and the current period of climate
change. Some scientists predict that warmer worldwide temperatures will mean decreased rainfall
in some parts of the world, leading to more drought events.

Human activity can influence the effect that drought has on the region.

Agricultural practices can make land more vulnerable to drought. Irrigation techniques have
increased farmers dependence on water. Over cultivation and overgrazing can lead to soil
compaction, and the soil is less able to hold water. As the soil becomes drier, it is vulnerable to
erosion and eventually desertification.
Deforestation, as a lack of trees decreases soil infiltration and increases soil erosion.

Building a dam on a larger river can cause drought downstream of the dam by reducing the flow of
water.

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): A low pressure belt that lies around the equator, where the
north-east and South-East trade winds meet, it receives high precipitation because of intense
heating from the Sun.
El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO): the change in the prevailing winds that leads to a change in
the pattern of currents in the oceans of South Pacific.

Strategies to manage the impact of natural hazards

Management strategies focus on prediction, prevention or protection (the three P's), in other words
trying to deal with a natural hazard before, during and after the event. The strategies used can be
short-term (such as warnings by text messaging, television or radio, rescuing people, providing
food, water supplies and temporary shelter) and long-term such as training emergency services,
providing education and awareness so people can stockpile essential items or evacuate safely).
Strategies should be sustainable, and improvements in technology mean that it is increasingly
possible to predict and protect against natural hazards. However, this is usually expensive and the
provision of aid, whether national or International, is often needed for the rebuilding process.
International aid can come from governments or charitable organizations, which offer various
forms of assistance such as medicine, food and shelter.

Earthquakes
Regions at risk from earthquakes can be identified by studying plate tectonics but predicting
earthquakes is very difficult and prevention probably impossible.

Prediction:
Instruments such as seismometers can monitor tremors. Groundwater levels and radon gas can
also be measured.
Epicenters and the frequency of past events can be mapped to see if a pattern is developing.
Measurement of local magnetic fields.
A hazard zone map can be drawn based on geological information and ground stability.
Unusual animal behavior.

Preparation and protection:

Earthquake proof or aseismic buildings. Older buildings can be retrofitted.
Smart meters that cut off gas supplies to prevent fires.
Land-use planning: important services such as schools and hospitals are built in low risk areas.

Some features of an earthquake-proof building include:

rubber shock absorbers at the base to absorb tremors

foundations sunk deep into bedrock

cross-bracing steel beams allowing the building to move as a rigid structure

computer-controlled weights on the roof to reduce shaking

construction using fire-resistant materials

flexible piping for electricity, water and gas.

no bricks or concrete blocks.

Volcanoes
We know where volcanoes are located but eruptions are often unpredictable in terms of magnitude
and timing.

Prediction
Seismometers monitor tremors caused by rising magma.

Satellites using heat-seeking cameras can measure increasing ground temperatures.

Tiltmetres and global positioning systems monitor changes in volcano shape.

Emissions of steam and gas (sulfur dioxide) can be monitored.

Preparation and protection

Study past eruptions of a volcano and create a volcano hazard map.

Plans such as lava diversion channels, lava barriers, spraying lava with water and halting lava
advance by dropping concrete slabs into the flow.

Building reinforcements, for example sloping roofs to protect against ashfall.

Tropical cyclones
Tropical cyclones are the most predictable of natural hazards. We know when they will form, we can
track their movements and we know what the impacts will be.

Prediction
tropical cyclones are tracked using satellites.

Preparation and protection

Cyclone Shelters

Buildings on stilts so not flooded by storm surge

Embankments built along coast.

Preserve mangrove swamps to absorb the energy of storm surges.

Flooding
Managing flood risks involves not only in the river channel but also the drainage basin.

Prediction
Monitoring the amount of rainfall and the change in river discharge.
Knowledge about the characteristics of the drainage basin and type of storm is valuable for
determining the possible severity of the flooding.

Preparation and protection

Hard engineering projects (physical structures that are permanent, often expensive and can impact
on the environment) such as levees, flood barriers, flood control channels and dams.
Soft engineering projects, such as afforestation, controlled flooding of meadowland and storage
basin.
Straightening, widening and deepening the river channel by dredging and clearing vegetation.
Land-use planning to use higher land for settlements, restrict development on floodplains or
increase green space.
Use of sand bags and pumps
Adapt houses, for example positioning power sockets to 1.5 m above ground level.

Drought
Prediction
Monitoring precipitation and temperature
Preparation and protection
Increase water supplies by dams and reservoirs, percolation ponds, wells, pumps and use of
aquifers, water transfer by pipeline, desalination

Water conservation such as using storage tanks, spray irrigation, planting drought-tolerant crops,
reducing deforestation and increasing water recycling.

Agricultural improvements such as planting shelterbelts to reduce wind and evaporation, building
low banks across a slope (Bunds) to encourage infiltration and fencing to control overgrazing.

Government stockpiling supplies of water, food and medicine.

Opportunities presented by natural hazards

Despite the known risks of living in areas prone to natural hazards, many millions of people around
the world continue to do so. Why is this?
Individuals may have lived in an area all their life and want to be near family and friends. They do
not perceive the risk to be very high, particularly if they have never experienced a natural hazard.
Confidence in prediction, preparation and protection methods

Employment opportunities, such as in tourism as souvenir sellers and guides, or in fishing.

An individual may have no choice in moving if there is pressure on land, or it is too expensive to
move.
In the case of volcanoes, fertile soils are created that produce high crop yields. The scenery can be
spectacular, geothermal power can supply a cheap form of power and there is the possibility of
mining minerals such as sulfur, diamonds and gold.
In the case of flooding, rivers may provide a source of food, water for drinking and irrigation,
communications may be easier and flat land either side of the river is available for building on.
Unit 7:
The atmosphere and human activities
The structure and composition of the atmosphere
Composition
The atmosphere is a layer of gases held to the earth by gravitational force. Gravity and compression
mean that 50% of the atmosphere lies within 5.6 km of the Earth's surface. When the earth was first
formed, it is believed it had no atmosphere but, as the planet cooled, gases were released and an
atmosphere began to form. Today's atmosphere is composed of nitrogen (mostly the product of
volcanic eruptions), oxygen, argon (an inert or noble gas), carbon dioxide (cycled through
photosynthesis, respiration and burning of fossil fuels) and ozone. Carbon dioxide and ozone are
referred to as variable gases because there quantity can change as a result of processes such as
evaporation and transpiration and, in the case of ozone, because of varying rates of formation,
pollution and seasonal change. There are minute traces of other, mostly inert, gases, such as
krypton. Besides these gases the atmosphere contains aerosols or solid particles (minute particles
of dust such as salt, fine sand and volcanic ash) and water vapour.

Noble gas: a gas that rarely reacts with other elements because it is stable, previously referred to as
inert gases.

Aerosols: sprays containing fine particles and/or droplets that become suspended in the
atmosphere

The natural balance of gases in the atmosphere is maintained by various cycles, for example the
nitrogen cycle and carbon cycle. However, human activities can alter the composition in many ways.
Carbon dioxide is added by burning fossil fuels and deforestation. Growing rice and keeping cattle
both increase methane levels. We can also reduce some gases by afforestation or releasing ozone
destroying chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

Structure:

Atmospheric pressure decreases with height in the atmosphere but temperature changes are more
complicated. Based on temperature changes, the atmosphere can be divided into 4 layers.
The troposphere:
Temperature decreases with height (averaging 6.4 degree centigrade per kilometer) because the
warming effect of the earth’s surface through conduction and convection diminishes as altitude
increases. The strength of the earth's gravitational pull declines with altitude, and pressure declines
too. In contrast, wind speeds increase with height. The top of this layer is marked by the
tropopause, where temperatures remain fairly constant. This boundary occurs at a height of about 8
kilometers at the poles and 17 kilometer in the tropics, and marks the upper limit to the earth's
weather and climate.

The Stratosphere:
This layer extends to nearly 50 kilometers above the Earth’s surface. Pressure continues to fall but
temperatures increase steadily with height. This situation is called a temperature inversion and is
caused by the concentration of ozone, which absorbs the incoming ultraviolet radiation from the
Sun. This layer also acts as Shield against incoming meteorites, which burn out when they enter the
earth's gravitational field. The upper limit of the stratosphere is marked by the stratopause

The mesosphere:
This layer is 50 to 80 km in height. Pressure continues to decrease and temperatures fall rapidly to
below -80 degree centigrade because there is no water vapour, dust or ozone to absorb the
incoming shortwave radiation. Winds can reach speeds up to 3000 kilometers per hour. The
mesopause marks the upper limit of this layer.
The thermosphere:
This layer is 80 to 1000 kilometers in height and temperatures rise rapidly to as high as 1500
degree centigrade because of the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by atomic oxygen. The
thermopause marks the upper limit of this layer.

Tropopause: the upper limit of the troposphere

Temperature inversion: when temperatures increase with altitude

Stratopause: the upper limit of the stratosphere, temperatures remain constant in this boundary
layer

Mesopause: the upper limit of the mesosphere, temperatures remain constant in this boundary
layer

Thermopause:
the upper limit of the thermosphere, temperatures remain constant in this boundary layer

The natural greenhouse effect

The natural greenhouse effect is the process that helps keep the Earth’s surface and atmosphere
warm. The earth receives incoming short-wave radiation from the Sun. About half of this radiation is
absorbed by the Earth's surface, around 20% is absorbed by the atmosphere and 30% is reflected
by clouds and the Earth's surface, back into space.
As the Earth’s surface warms, outgoing long-wave radiation or infrared radiation is emitted back
into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases absorb some of this radiation and deflect it back to the
Earth's surface. These greenhouse gases make up a small proportion of the atmosphere but they act
like a blanket trapping the radiation. The greater the concentration of greenhouse gases, the more
effectively they return radiation back to the Earth's surface. This process maintains the earth's
temperature at around 33 degree centigrade warmer than it would otherwise be, allowing life to
exist. Aside from water vapour, the main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous
oxides. The CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons gases containing fluorine, chlorine and carbon) are also
greenhouse gases but are artificial. Ozone is a greenhouse gas. These gases stay in the atmosphere
for different amount of time.
Atmospheric pollution and its causes:
Atmospheric or air pollution occurs when the atmosphere contains gases and substances in harmful
amounts. The substances that cause atmospheric pollution are called pollutants. Pollutants that
directly pollute the atmosphere are called primary pollutants. If the primary pollutants in the
atmosphere undergo chemical reactions the resulting compounds are called secondary pollutants.

Smog
Smog (smoke and fog) occurs where the burning of fossil fuels in industry, homes and vehicles
provides additional particles that act as condensation nuclei for fog to form around. Smog is a
problem associated with Industrial and urban areas and is more frequent during winter months as
people use more heating.

Photochemical smog involves chemical reactions induced by sunlight on certain pollutants that
converts them into harmful substances such as ground-level or tropospheric ozone. This type of
smog occurs during warm and sunny conditions. Vehicles are a major source of particulate matter
(PM) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which cause photochemical smog. Particulate matter
is categorized by the size of the particles (for example PM 2.5 comprises particles with a diameter of
less than 2.5 micro-meters). They can be derived from both human (for example fuel combustion,
engine emissions, tyre wear, mining, quarrying and construction) and natural (for example sea
spray, soil and dust) sources. Volatile organic compounds comprise a wide range of organic
compounds, including hydrocarbons, that evaporate and exist as vapour in the atmosphere.
Emissions of volatile organic compounds result from the incomplete combustion of fuel, leakages
from petrol tankers and fuel tanks extra. Methane, produced by certain agricultural practices is also
a volatile organic compound. Agricultural smog can form when ammonium Nitrate from fertilizers
and manure is carried in the air.
Certain physical conditions can create a temperature inversion that then traps and increases the
concentration of Smog. The smog may be thick enough to block out the sun, which gives rise to what
is known as the dustbin lid effect. The conditions needed for a temperature inversion include:

high air pressure (anticyclone), causes the upper air to sink

calm conditions resulting from high pressure (winds will disperse smog)

valleys surrounded by steep-sided hills, which trap the smog.

Short-wave radiation:
incoming or short-wave solar radiation, visible light and ultraviolet radiation are commonly called
shortwave radiation.

long-wave radiation:
outgoing or terrestrial radiation, as the earth produces very little visible light or ultraviolet
radiation, all radiation from the Earth is Infrared.

primary pollutant: a pollutant that is emitted directly from the source

secondary pollutant:
a pollutant that forms through chemical reactions with primary pollutants

photochemical smog:
air pollution in the atmosphere accompanied by high levels of ozone and nitrogen oxides from
vehicles and caused by the action of sunlight on the pollutants.

particulate matter (PM):

a mixture of very small particles and liquid droplets suspended in the air

volatile organic compounds (VOCs):

chemicals that easily enter the atmosphere as gases, mainly from evaporation

Acid rain
acid rain is precipitation with a PH value of less than 6 the acidity results from Burning fossil fuels
in factories and power station, which release sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the
atmosphere. vehicle emissions at her that nitrogen oxide. this is dry deposition. if these gas is mixed
with water vapour and oxygen in the atmosphere, which solutions of nitric and Sulphuric Acid are
created which can then be moved by winds. this solutions will eventually for to earth as acid rain
and can at some distance from the source this is wet deposition

Ozone depletion
in 2010 a report from the United Nations claimed that levels of stratospheric ozone between 1996
and 2009 were 4% lower than before 1980 Ozone is a Greenhouse gas that can be found in both the
troposphere and stratosphere but it is concentrated at a height of about 25 kilometre in the
stratosphere the Ozone Layer exist because oxygen filter in from the top of the troposphere reacts
under the influence of ultraviolet radiation to form ozone screen the Earth from the sun harmful
radiation the stratosphere Ozone is continuously being produced, destroyed and replaced by this
chemical process, creating a dynamic balance between our atmosphere and ultraviolet radiation.
this chemical reaction is greatest above the equator and tropics, where solar radiation is strongest
and more direct, and Ozone is distributed other regions by wind in the stratosphere. this natural
balance has been disrupted by human activities, causing the concentration of ozone to fall. the main
danger is chlorine, which reacts with oxygen in a destructive process, chlorine is found in the CFC
released by plastic manufacturing, air cooling systems, refrigeration fluid and aerosol sprays. CFC is
a long lived and eventually reach the stratosphere, where ultraviolet radiation breaks them down,
releasing chlorine. as ozone depleting in the stratosphere IT forms of hole in 1985 a seasonal
depletion in the layer of ozone was found above Antarctica this whole aloud harmful ultraviolet
radiation to enter the earth's atmosphere the southern hemisphere winter wear over Antarctica is
cut from the rest of the atmosphere by the polar vortex strong winds sleeping around the continent
hi in the stratosphere, clouds formed from tiny particles in the intense cold, and their services
chemical reactions involving CFC is take place, releasing chlorine, which reacts with the oxygen in
the Ozone Layer. destruction of the Ozone Layer begins with the spring sun arise in summer the
clouds evaporate chlorine converts into other compound the whole fails in until next year. the Ozone
hole is more developed over Antarctica then the octal because Antarctica is separated from the rest
of the world by the polar

The enhanced greenhouse effect

enhanced greenhouse effect is created by the addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere
through human activities. It results in more heat being retained in the atmosphere and an increase
in the earth's temperature this is leading to global warming and global climate change the increase
in these gases is because of human activities as illustrated below

Greenhouse gas
human activities that increase their abundance

Carbon dioxide
burning of fossil fuels deforestation

Methane
cattle and rice production coma coal mine ventilation, deforestation and decomposition of waste

CFC
Aerospace fire extinguishers refrigeration air conditioning

Nitrogen oxide
vehicle exhaust chemical fertilizers

Tropospheric ozone
chemical reactions involving Nitrogen dioxide and on bird fuel vapours

Carbon dioxide is the single largest contributor to the enhanced greenhouse effect. Deforestation
can increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere because it reduces the number of
plants available to take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere increase in carbon dioxide emissions
account for approximately 70% of the enhanced greenhouse effect scientist estimate with the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere before the industrial revolution in the late 18th
century had a value of approximately to 80 parts per million measurements in 2015 put it at over
400 PP am the highest ever recorded.
Depletion
A reduction process or loss
polar vortex

Circulation of strong upper level winds that surround Antarctica keep cold air locked in above the
continent

The impact of atmospheric pollution

while levels of acid rain have declined in Europe and North America in 2016 the World Health
Organisation issued a warning about the levels of atmospheric pollution in 2000 of the world's
biggest cities it is claimed that poor air quality is killing over 7 million people each year

Smog
pollutant molecules and and NO2

Irritation of Eyes and truth increasing respiratory diseases such as Eczema

fine particles carried in to the lungs leading to lung cancer strokes and heart attacks
breathing difficulties

the ability of plants to bake and store food through photosynthesis is reduced
growth reproduction and General Health of plants decline making them more prone to diseases and
pests

acid rain
pollutant molecules Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen dioxide
acidification of groundwater makes water and drinkable and can cause diarrhoea and stomach
upset
aluminium leached from the soil into the ground water has been linked with pre senile dementia
limestone build is are chemically weather
crop yields decline

trees affected as Holi age dies

acidification of green ground water damages tree roots
nutrients such as calcium or least out of the soil
aquatic animal life in lakes is Poison and decreases as acidity levels increase

ozone depletion
pollutant molecules CFC
higher levels of ultraviolet radiation causes sunburn skin cancers retina damage and cataract
disease of the eye that cloud the Eyes lens
immune system can be suppressed
extra ultraviolet radiation in hi what's the reproductive cycle of of phytoplankton which make up
the lowest layer of some food webs this could affect the populations of other animals
changes in biochemical composition make some plant leaves less attractive as food
melting ice sheets, glaciers and permafrost can lead to rise in sea level

climate change
pollutant molecules various greenhouse gases
 damage to low lying countries such as Bangladesh from flooding would be disruptive with high
financial cause forced migration as people lose their homes and farm land from rising sea levels
wobble weather name in formers grow different crops and have longer growing season increased
routs could lead to desertification and famine
negative impact on certain economic activities example the skin industry

sea level rise will lead the loss of Postal land and increased erosion
animal and plant species would not be able to adapt fast enough to the changes leading to loss of
biodiversity Habitat for extinction
more severe Storms and drugs
changes to fishing Industries if fish species move to different water
ecosystem change would mean plant and animal species would into new areas and new species
emerge
warmer temperatures would allow diseases such as Malaria to spread

Managing atmospheric pollution

Governments
There are many different schemes that governments can implement to tackle rising levels of air
pollution. To reduce sulphur dioxide emissions and hence acid rain, governments can use low
sulphur coal and crush and wash it before it is burnt in power stations. Flue gas desulfurization
measures such as scrubbers can remove up to 95% of Sulfur dioxide emissions, and lining chimneys
with lime also helps. Catalytic converters reduce sulfur emissions from vehicles, as can the use of
low sulfur vehicle fuels. Particulate filters can be fitted on diesel vehicles.
To combat ozone depletion there has been a global reduction in the use of CFCs. Alternative
processes have been introduced, for example pump action sprays, or alternative materials are used,
for example alcohols and hydro-chloro-floro-carbons containing CFCs such as old refrigerators, has
also been encouraged.
To reduce other pollutants, such as carbon dioxide, governments can implement a comprehensive
public transport policy, with the creation of cycle lanes, bus lanes, Metro systems and trams. Electric
or hybrid cars can be encouraged, as can the use of biofuel. A higher road tax discourages more car
ownerships and vehicles can be deterred or banned from certain parts of cities by actions such as
pedestrianisation or the Congestion Charge in London. To reduce the level of PM10 particles in Paris
in 2015, only vehicles with odd numbered number plates for carrying more than three people were
permitted to enter the city. The speed limit for vehicles in Paris was 20 kilometers per hour in the
city. To encourage people to leave their vehicles at home, public transport and residential parking
were free. Increased use of renewable energy and nuclear energy can be attempted through
government policy, as can an increase in carbon sinks through reforestation and afforestation.
Carbon capture and storage can be implemented: this is when waste carbon dioxide from power
stations is transported via pipelines to storage sites. Laws can also be passed to reduce emissions
from industries, and new industrial areas can be located on the downwind side of urban areas.

Individuals
Governments can encourage individuals through campaigns and advertising to be more energy
efficient in their homes and to be aware of personal carbon footprints. A carbon footprint is a
measure of the impact our activities have on the environment. It calculates all the greenhouse gases
we are expected to produce through our activities and measures them in units of carbon dioxide.
Reduce, reuse and recycle (the 3Rs) should be encouraged. In agriculture, farmers can replace
chemical fertilizers with organic fertilizers.
China is experiencing Rapid industrialization. In 2011 China's government published a report that
claimed that 258 Chinese cities were suffering from the effects of acid rain. The acid rain falls in the
south and east of the country, where the majority of the population, industry and power stations are
located. In 2014 China was the world's largest energy consumer, accounting for 23% of all global
energy consumption, and the dominant fuel is coal, providing 66% of the country's energy
consumption. When the coal is burnt in factories and power stations, it releases Sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide, which form acid rain. Expanding car ownership is also leading to high emissions of
these gases.
The effects of acid rain in China are numerous. Lakes and rivers have become more acidic, killing
fish, crop yields are lower and commercial timber is being lost as trees die. Structural damage to
buildings is been caused by chemical weathering. The 71m high and 28 m wide, Leshan Giant
Buddha, which has stood for more than 1000 years, has been badly affected.
China first attempted to reduce Sulfur dioxide emissions in 2007, before the 2008 Beijing Olympics.
In 2011, as part of the governments five year plan, ambitious targets for emission reduction were
set. Several strategies were used: flue gas desulfurization methods, such as switching to coal with
the low sulfur content and crushing and washing it, installing scrubbers and using lime spray. Small
coal fired power stations were closed in favour of less polluting energy sources (nuclear, wind and
solar) and in their homes people were encouraged to change their fuel type and use cars less. While
sulfur dioxide levels over China remain the highest in the world, the implementation of these
Strategies and a slowing of the Chinese economy lead to a 50% reduction in emissions of acid rain
producing gases between 2012 and 2014. However, China's acid rain problem has become the
world's problem. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from China's coal fired power stations fall as
acid rain on South Korea, Japan and Taiwan.
Human population

Exponential growth
When the growth rate of a population increases rapidly over time.

Population
All the organisms of one species living in a defined area.

Lag phase
The period of time in population growth when an organism is adapting to its new environment and
growth is slow.

Log growth
When the growth rate of a population increases rapidly over time.

Stationary phase
When the growth of a population has slowed to zero.

Carrying capacity
The maximum size of a population that an environment can support in terms of food, water and
other resources.
All studied populations show an S-shaped curve with a number of identifiable stages, as shown
above.
In nature, the environment can only provide a limited amount of resources such as food, shelter and
nest sites. It is said to have a carrying capacity. The carrying capacity is the maximum population
size of any species that the environment can support without damage. Populations are therefore
expected to stop growing at some point. The paramecium laboratory study shows above curve. In
the Paramecium experiment, exponential growth started to slow down at about 6 days and
population growth stopped all together after just over 8 days. After population growth stopped
there was neither growth nor decline. In nature, after the exponential growth phase the population
fluctuates up and down rather than remaining steady as in laboratory examples.
Sometimes, if natural limits on population growth are not present, the population size might exceed
the carrying capacity. The reindeer population study shows this.
[A study followed 29 reindeer released onto St Matthew Island, near Alaska, in 1944. By 1963 there
were 6000 reindeer. The above graph is showing the reindeer growth. The reindeer had no
predators on the island, which meant they could undergo very rapid population growth, but in
doing so they damaged the environment and their food supply. After 1963 the population crashed to
almost none by 1966.]
The consequences of exceeding the carrying capacity can be devastating. Humans have consistently
managed to exceed the natural carrying capacity of virtually every area in which they live. This is
because of our use of technology, especially that associated with agriculture. In 1798, Thomas
Malthus predicted that the human population would actually grow faster than its food supply. This
has not proved to be true, because the advances that have been made since then could not have
been predicted by Malthus. Food production has grown much more rapidly than he expected, largely
due to advances in plant breeding, the use of chemical fertilizers, improved irrigation and all kinds
of mechanization.

History of human population

About 10,000 years ago there were about 5 million people living as hunter-gatherers. Significant
points in the growth of the human population since then are:

About 6000 years ago humans started to grow crops and keep animals, which provided more food
and allowed the population to begin to grow.

By the time the modern system of counting years started (just over 2000 years ago), the population
was about 250 million.

It then took another 1800 years to reach 1 billion (where 1 billion = 1000 million)

After this, growth became very rapid

By 1930, it was 2 billion (just 130 years to double)

By 1975, it was 4 billion (doubling in just 45 more years)

At time of writing (2016) it is well over 7 billion, a rise of 3 billion in just 37 years.
The most striking feature of above figure is how similar the pattern of growth in the human
population is to that shown in animal studies. The only difference between this graph for humans
and that for other animals is that there is no sign of levelling off. The similarities in growth curves
suggest that future trends in human populations will be like those found in other animals. Human
population growth is therefore expected to slow down and settle into an equilibrium, that is level
off.
The UN predictions for the human population in 2100 based on all the evidence available are shown
below
Birth rate and death rate
Individuals are born and others die every day. In 2015, about four babies were being born every
second, which is about 350000 every day. This is the birth rate. The birth rate is partially balanced
by the death rate which, in 2015, was about 150,000 every day. The difference between these two
rates is the rate of natural increase. For the world in 2015 it was approximately:
350000 - 150000 = 200000 per day (or day-1)
This is about 73 million extra people in a year.

Birth rate
The total number of live births over time

Death rate
The total number of deaths over time

Rate of natural increase

The birth rate minus the death rate

Factors affecting birth rate and death rate

A wide range of factors affect birth rate
In countries with the high death rate for the very young (the infant mortality rate), birth rates are
also high

In agrarian (farming) economies of many less economically developed countries (LEDCs), more
people are needed for manual labour, and so families tend to be larger

In more economically developed countries (MEDCs) it is expensive to have children and pensions
are provided by the state

Many social and political factors result in low use of birth control in LEDCs, whereas in MEDCs birth
control is widely used, so both birth and death rates are lower.

Migration
Population growth or decline is the result of the balance between birth and death rates.

In real populations, however, the situation is more complicated because of the movement of people
into and out of an area. This is called migration. Taking this into consideration, the population
growth equation changes from:

population growth = (birth rate - death rate)

TO
population growth = (birth rate + immigration) – (death rate + emigration)
where:
immigration means people entering an area from outside

emigration means people leaving an area from inside.

Population structure
In addition to their size, populations have a structure. The structure describes how the population is
made up in terms of age and sex, and can be displayed in a diagram called a population or age
pyramid. The following figure shows an example, with males and females, one on each side, and 5
year age groups going vertically.

Population pyramids fall into three main categories: expanding (or young) populations, stationary
populations and contracting (or old) populations. Afghanistan has a typical pyramid for a LEDC,
with a high proportion of young people because of a high birth rate. The USA has a population that
is almost stationary, with a rectangular shape, except at the top when older people die. In Japan, the
population is declining because of low birth rates, and its pyramid is top-heavy because of low
death rates.
Looking at a pyramid, from bottom to top, it can be divided conveniently into three groups. The
young, up to about school age (14-16 years old, depending on country), the middle aged (about
16-65) and then the old, over 65. In practical terms the young and old are dependent, whereas the
middle aged are independent and working. The young use money, in the form of taxes paid by the
middle aged, for education. These taxes support the old as well.
The differences in age structure present different challenges for governments of LEDCs with young
populations and MEDCs with older populations. In LEDCs with a young population, provision of
School places for the many children who will be reaching to school age is likely to be a Priority. In
MEDCs, the ageing population will put a strain on hospital and care-home places, making those a
priority. Money from taxes paid by the middle aged may need to be used to address these priorities.

Managing human populations

Human population growth can be seen as a problem. Usually, the concerns are about the impact of
the increasing numbers of humans on global resources and the environment, as discussed
elsewhere.
However, there are cases where population growth is thought to be too slow. There have been many
attempts at various levels of society, for example in cities or countries, to manage population size.

Family planning
Family planning is the strategy a couple uses to plan how many and when to have children. Although
family planning is sometimes taken to just mean contraception, other methods are involved. In its
widest sense family planning also includes sterilization and abortion. The application of assisted
reproductive techniques (IVF or in vitro fertilization) can be thought of as a form of family planning.
Although family planning is usually associated with the choices couples make, governments can
intervene in many ways. Some government provide free contraception to all couples, while in other
nations contraception may be generally unavailable.

Improved health and education

An obvious effect of improved healthcare and education would seem to be a rise in the population,
because it is likely to lower the death rate. However, this is often not the case. Education makes
people more aware of methods that can be used to limit family size. In addition, educated women
may plan a career as well as having children, the former frequently limiting how many children are
born. Education can also lead to a tendency for later marriage and thus later child bearing. Health
Care, especially of young under the age of five, tends to reduce growth as well. When infant
mortality is high, the response is for couples to have many children. When it is reduced by better
health care and sanitation, the trend goes the other way.

National Population policies

In countries where the population is declining, the government may try to remedy the situation
with a pronatalist policy. Where the population is becoming too large, antinatalist policies may be
used.

Pronatalist policies
In France, the government had concerns that the country's population was declining and would be
unable to sustain itself. It decided to try and raise the birth rate by encouraging couples to have
more than two children, and so increase the population. Parents are paid the equivalent of the
minimum wage for a year after they have a third child. In addition, they enjoy subsidised day-care.
The birth rate has now increased to be one of the highest in Europe.

Antinatalist policies
A more widespread problem outside the MEDCs is a population that is increasing too fast. In such
countries, antinatalist policies are often used. These policies take many forms, from quite weak
measures such as the provision of family planning, contraceptives and education, to laws
encouraging couples to only have one child. Some countries have no population policies at all and
their birth rates are usually very high.

Population pyramid
a diagram that shows the proportion of the population that is male and female in different age
groups usually five year intervals

age pyramid
a diagram that shows the proportion of the population that is male and for female in different age
groups usually five year intervals
Dependent
those people in the population was not economically active working and to rely on the NGOs
working for their need
independent those people in the population who are normally active walking
family planning
methods used for a couple who decide when and how many we practiced by couples and
introduced by governments
Contraception
a range of methods used to prevent pregnancy
product analyst policy
National original policy change to encourage couples to help children
anti natalist policy
National original policy that aims to discourage couples for having children
Natural ecosystem and human activity
The ecosystem:
An ecosystem is defined as all the living things (biotic components) together with all the non-living
things (abiotic components) in an area. These biotic and abiotic components interact with each
other.
Ecosystem structure:
The living things in an ecosystem can be described at a number of different levels.

Populations are made up of all the individuals of the same species in an area. Examples of
populations include all the frogs in a pond, all the drongos in a forest or all the elephants in a
national park.

Communities are made up of all the species.

Characteristic of a particular ecosystem:

Examples include all the different species of animal in the Arctic tundra or all the plants in the Arctic
tundra, representing the animal and plant communities respectively.

Ecosystem: all the living things (biotic components) together with all the non-living things (abiotic
components) in an area.

Biotic: living components of the environment that may affect other living things.

Abiotic: non-living components of the environment that may affect living things.

Population: all the organisms of one species living in a defined area.

Community: a group of populations of different species that live together in an area and interact
with each other.

Living things are found in a habitat within the ecosystem. A Habitat is the place where the
population of an organism lives, find food and reproduces. Within its Habitat, the population of an
organism has a particular role in terms of its interactions with other species and its effect on the
environment. This is called its niche. The fact that there are so many niches to fill in the ecosystems
of the world is the reason why there are so many species. This may seem to be something of a
paradox. For example, all plants make food from sunlight. However, plants that can make food in a
desert climate are very different from those that do the same thing on the floor of a rainforest,
which are different again from those that do it in the canopy of the same forest. So, an ecosystem
consists of communities of living things that live in single species population in particular habitats
where they perform particular functions within their niche.

Abiotic factors
Most of the concepts above are about the living things (biotic factors), but habitats and niches
include non-living or abiotic factors too. These affect living things and are affected by them. The
major abiotic factors are described below
Temperature
Temperature is usually expressed as degrees centigrade. Living things have a range of temperatures
within which they can survive. For example, species of flatworms from the genus Planaria are
distributed in Mountain streams according to how hot or cold the water is. One planarian species
lives high up in the mountains where the water is colder, and another lives lower down where the
water is warmer.
Humidity
Humidity is a measure of how damp the air is: how much water vapour it holds. It is usually
expressed as relative humidity (RH). Relative humidity expresses the humidity as a percentage of
the amount of water vapour the air could hold if fully saturated. This can range from 0% in dry
desert environments to 100% in humid rainforests. Some living things simply cannot survive in dry
air, for example many species of fungi.

Water
Water is essential for all life. It is a raw material for photosynthesis and a medium for chemical
reactions. However, living things can survive without water in liquid form. For example, some
beetles that live in stored products like flour only use the water they make themselves during
respiration.
Plants obtain water from the soil and the water content of soil can be a very important factor in
determining exactly where a plant species lives. For example, cacti are adapted to survive in soil
with very little water. Those plants that live in soil that is saturated with water (waterlogged) such
as rushes and rice, have roots that are adapted to function in low oxygen conditions.

Oxygen
The oxygen level is nearly always about 20% of the gas in air, the rest of the gas in air is mainly
nitrogen. However, the absolute quantity decreases as altitude increases. At the top of a high
mountain, there is much less oxygen than at sea level. In water the amount of oxygen is usually
expressed as parts per million (ppm).
Oxygen is not very soluble in water so all aquatic organisms have special adaptations to get enough,
for example, gills in fish. Plants with their roots in waterlogged soil have adaptations to get oxygen
to the roots. For example, rushes have a spongy stem that allows oxygen to move down from the air
to the roots.

Salinity
Salinity, how salty something is, is measured as parts per million (ppm) or parts per thousand (ppt)
of salt, or as a concentration (for example milligrams per liter)
This is mainly a factor that affects aquatic animals. All marine species live in water that has 35 ppt of
salt, where as in fresh water there is none. Water with the salinity that is less than 35 ppt, but more
than 0, is referred to as brackish water.
In some cases, the water in soil is saline, for example in salt marshes. Plants that live in saline water
are adapted in various ways, for example mangroves secrete the excess salt from their leaves as a
result of poor irrigation practices and this can be a serious problem for farmers trying to grow
crops.

Light
Light is measured in various ways and expressed as lumens. It is essential for photosynthesis and
therefore nearly all living things depend on it. With no light there will be no food. However, some
plants are adapted to living in low light levels and can support a community of animals.

Habitat:
the place within an ecosystem where an organism lives.
Niche:
the role of a species within the ecosystem
Brackish water:
water that is salty but not as salty as seawater
pH
pH is a measure of how acid or alkaline water, or an aqueous solution, is. It is expressed as a number
without units on the pH scale. The pH of the sea is relatively stable but pH can vary a lot in
freshwater. Decomposing leaves, for example, add humic acid to the water, reducing the pH to less
than 7. The pH of soil water is a very important factor for plants. Some plants are acid loving,
requiring a soil with an acidic water content. Other plants cannot survive in the acidic soils at all.

Ecosystem processes:
A key feature of the way in which the living world works is that organisms interact with each other.
The best way to see this is in a diagram called a food chain. Green plants make food in a process
called photosynthesis and are called producers. Animals called herbivorous, eat the plants and
animals called carnivores eat the herbivorous. Both these kinds of animals are called consumers,
one consuming (=eating) plants and the other consuming animals. A plant eating consumer is a
primary consumer and animal eating one is a secondary consumer. If an animal eats an animal that
itself eats an animal, it is called a tertiary consumer. If the animal (or other organism, for example
fungi) consumes dead bodies of plants or animals it is called a decomposer. This simple relationship
can be shown in a food chain
producers → herbivorous (primary consumers)→ first carnivorous (secondary consumers,
predators)→ second carnivores (tertiary consumers, also predators)
However, if you look at a real example, you will see that the full picture is not so simple. In a garden
there might be plants with leaves that, when they fall to the ground, are eaten by earthworms. In
turn, the earth worm is eaten by a bird which could be eaten by a snake.
leaves→ earthworm→ bird→ snake
However, the leaf might also be eaten by a slug or a woodlouse, the worm by a fox or a shrew, and
the bird by a fox as well. If you put all of these relationships, and more into a diagram you will have a
much more accurate picture of real life. Such a diagram is called a food web.

Food chain: a diagram showing the relationship between a single producer and primary, secondary
and tertiary consumers.

Photosynthesis: the process by which plants or plant like organisms make glucose in the form of
carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water using energy from sunlight.

Producers: organisms within an ecosystem that can carry out photosynthesis

Herbivore: another name for primary consumer

Carnivore: another name for secondary and tertiary consumers
Primary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from producers
Secondary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from primary
consumers
Tertiary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from secondary
consumers
Decomposers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from the bodies of Dead
organisms
Food web: a diagram showing the relationship between all (or most) of the producers, primary,
secondary and tertiary consumers in an ecosystem

Any change in one part of the food web can cause changes in any other part. So, if the weather is
poor and plants do not grow so well, everything will be affected. If snake numbers fall because they
are killed by humans, this could lead to an increase in the number of birds, which might then eat
more earthworms, causing their numbers to fall. It is often impossible to predict what one change in
one part of a food web might lead to elsewhere.

Even this is not likely to be the whole story: what eats the woodlice, the slugs and the shrews? What
else do the snakes, foxes, birds and earthworms eat? Real food webs are very complicated. A way of
simplifying this information is to think of the numbers of Producers and Consumers found in the
ecosystem. In a lake, millions of tiny microscopic plants are being fed on by thousands of tiny
animals. In turn, these are eaten by hundreds of small fish, which in their turn are eaten by dozens
of large fish. Standing by the side of the lake might be a few herons and egrets, eating the big fish.
This information can be represented in a diagram called a pyramid of numbers. The pyramid shape
reflects the loss of energy at each tropic (feeding) level.

Photosynthesis
Plants trap energy in the form of light from the Sun in a process called photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a complicated process but can be summarised as if it was a single-step chemical
reaction:
carbon dioxide + water → light chlorophyll → glucose + oxygen
Glucose is a sugar used by plants in the process of respiration to release energy, and is also
converted by the plant to make other substances it needs, such as starch, cellulose, proteins and
many more. Some of these substances are very important for humans as medicines.
Other elements (minerals) from the soil, such as nitrogen, are needed to form some of the
substances, such as proteins, but in every case, chemical energy remains stored the substance.

Plants obtain the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through pores in their leaves (stomata). They
obtain the water from the soil through their roots. A green pigment in the leaves called chlorophyll
absorbs the light. The light energy is used to split the water into hydrogen and oxygen. The
hydrogen is added to carbon dioxide to make glucose. The oxygen not used in respiration is given off
to the atmosphere.

Interactions between living things - biotic interactions

Living things interact in a variety of ways, including those discussed below
Competition
Living things need a range of resources from the environment, including other living things and
non- living components like water and oxygen. Many more young are produced than will survive, so
there is often competition for the resources. Those individuals that are least well adapted to the
current conditions will die earlier or fail to reproduce.

Predation
When one animal eats another it is called a Predator. Examples of familiar predators include tigers
and lions. However, there are also many predators in the insect world and in the sea. Many beetles
eat earthworms and insect Larvae, and marine predators range from small fish to the great white
shark.

Pollination
The male gametes (sex cells) of many animals (including humans) swim through an aqueous
(watery) environment to the female gamete (egg cell). However, flowering plants do not reproduce
like this. The male sex cells are found in a structure called a pollen grain, made in the anther. The
pollen grain is either blown about by the wind (as in many grasses and trees) or carried by insects,
bees, birds and mammals. The anther is in the flower, which attracts the animals with bright
colours, scent and the production of nectar. The pollen grain lands on the stigma of another flower
and sends out a tube. This tube grows down to where the female gamete (egg) is. Here, the egg is
fertilized and from this an embryo in a seed, egg, develops. This embryo can grow into a new plant.

Pyramid of numbers:
a diagram that represents the numbers of organisms at each feeding (trophic) level in an ecosystem
by a horizontal bar whose length is proportional to the numbers at that level

Trophic level:
A feeding level within a food chain or web

Chlorophyll:
the green pigment in plants that traps light energy

Respiration:
the process by which living things release energy from food to carry out the processes of life, such
as movement

Pollen grain:
the structure in plants that contains the male sex cell, it is carried to the female organ by pollination

Energy flows and nutrient cycles

When a consumer eats a plant it gets two things:

Chemical energy from the starch, simple sugars and other compounds
Various materials, such as nitrogen, that are also present in these substances

Consumers use some of the chemical energy for their own life processes, converting it into
heat. This heat is given off to the environment and lost the living things. However, the
minerals are not lost because, when consumers die, their bodies break down. The minerals
in the dead bodies are released and become available again to living things. It is important
to know this difference: energy flows through ecosystems but minerals cycle round
ecosystems.

Energy flow
How much of the energy in a plant is available to a consumer? The plant needs some energy
for its own life processes. It gets this energy not from the light it traps but from the
chemical energy it has stored. Plants store light energy as chemical energy in the Sugars
and other substances they make. A plant gets the energy that it needs for its own life
processes from a process called respiration. The overall equation for respiration is:

glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + (energy)

Note that in the equation, energy is placed in brackets because it is not a substance.

Glucose and oxygen are used up during respiration and water and carbon dioxide are
produced as waste products.

The energy is used for the processes the plant needs (for example transporting food and
making proteins) and given off to the environment as heat. Only the energy that is left in the
material a plant does not use is available to a consumer. This is about 10% of the energy
that was fixed from sunlight by the plant. This energy flow can be shown in a simple
diagram, as in (a) above. The same relationship occurs at the next trophic level, shown in
above figure (b). Together, the two parts of figure form a pyramid of energy as shown
below.
So, after just two steps the amount of energy available to a consumer is 10% of 10% of that
available from the Sun, which is only 1%. After three steps it is only 0.1 %. This explains
why food chains never have more than four, or sometimes 5, links: there is just not enough
energy left to support another trophic level. The quantity of energy present in each level,
and flowing between them, is measured in kilojoules (kJ).

Mineral cycles
At the same time as a consumer is obtaining energy from the level below, it is acquiring the
minerals that it needs. These include carbon, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus and nitrogen,
among many others. All cycles have the same basic pattern.
For Carbon, the reservoir is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Fixation is by
photosynthesis. Carbon is found within living things in carbohydrates, proteins, fats and
other chemicals. Carbon is removed from living things by respiration, which returns the
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
Respiration occurs in all living things, including microorganisms that break down dead
organisms. When microorganisms break down organisms, the process is called decay or
decomposition. Carbon dioxide is also returned to the atmosphere by burning
(combustion). This is important in relation to the removal of forest, when much of the
forest material that is cut down is burnt.

Estimating biodiversity in ecosystems

Biodiversity refers to all the species within an ecosystem as well as all the variation within
a species (genetic diversity) and the many different ecosystems in an area. There are good
reasons for managing the biodiversity of ecosystems. However, before biodiversity can be
properly managed it needs to be measured.

The populations of individual organisms and numbers of different species can be huge. This
means it is impossible to count all of them. For this reason, scientists use sampling methods
to count a subset of the whole; it is assumed that the subset reflects the whole population
size of species diversity. There are two main groups of methods for Sampling and
measuring biodiversity. One group uses techniques for sampling organisms that do not
move about (sedentary organisms), for example plants and animals such as barnacles and
limpets on a seashore. The second group uses techniques for sampling non-sedentary
organisms, which usually involve some sort of trap to catch the organisms.

Sampling sedentary organisms: quadrats and

transects
When an area of land has to be surveyed, it is usually necessary to sample it. If the subject
of the survey is plant species, the sampling can be done with the quadrat. A quadrat is a
frame of known area that can be placed over part of the site to be sampled. The plants
enclosed within the quadrat can then be counted. In some cases, counting individual plants
is still not possible so an estimate has to be made. The most common of way of estimating
plant numbers is to use an estimate of cover, for example using a simple scale such as
ACFOR. This provides a qualitative estimate
A = abundant
C = common
F = frequent
O = occasional
R = rare.

the causes and impact of Habitat loss

as discussed Habitat is a place where the population of an organism lives finds food and
reproduces therefore the loss of a habitat means the loss of those species that live find food
and reduce the net Habitat loss is the single most important cause of species extinction
many scientists believe that species extinction is happening at a faster rate than at any time
in the past what are the implications of this it is a difficult question to answer because we
do not know enough about the impact of species loss on ecosystem a recent study showed
that 80% of the Beatles captured from just 19 please in Panama Paglu 2 science so working
out the consequences of losing species is difficult because we do not really know what are
losing the latest estimates suggest that the current rate of species extinction could be as
much as 10,000 times higher than the natural rate how many species was actually means is
again difficult to estimate so far fewer than 2 million different species have been made and
estimates of how many species that currently are range from improve million to may be as
many as 100 billion if the letter estimate is correct and solution rate of just 0.01% for your
means that 10000 species are lost every year if the rate is 0.1 % per year then that would
mean a loss of $100,000 but it still does not answer the question but this matter
extinction the process by which a species or other named group ceases to exist on the earth
or in a name the area
causes of Habitat loss
there are three major causes of Habitat loss and therefore species extinction
the drainage of wetlands
some wetlands are found in land at some or postal and the total area is hard to estimate
the most widely accepted figure is that there are about 7 to 9 million square kilometres of
wetlands Around The World 3 million square kilometres of wetlands are found at the poles
just under 1 million square kilometre in temperate regions about 1.9 million square
kilometres in the tropics and 1.5 million square kilometres are rice paddies this represents
somewhere between 4 and 6% of the earth's land surface the area of wetlands difficult to
estimate because of their standard distribution however there are some major wetland
areas such as The Sentinel Brazil the loss of Venezuela and Colombia and the pearl river
deltas in China wetlands and traditionally been regarded as days plan and therefore a
relatively worthless however it is now realise that they have a variety of benefits including
the provision of the range of environmental services is environmental services include
shore line protection maintenance of water quality flood control recharging of aquifers and
biological productivity they also provide habitats and all source of a variety of products fish
wild ful unfortunately the current Global Area of wetlands is half what it was in 1900 there
are many causes of red land laws including
drainage for agriculture Forestry and mosquito control
 Origin for flood protection
used for disposal of waste created by road construction
discharge of pollutants
IIT removal
removal of groundwater
but land is rain for a variety of reasons including the provision of tourism facilities and
agricultural land many diseases are water related and one way of reducing or eliminating
these is to drain the water in Star causative organism for its electrolytes this is an especially
important way to control the spread of malaria the state of Minnesota in the USA provides a
good example of the rate of the planned last over the last two centuries The lost their is
estimated to be well over 50% since the early 1800
intensive agricultural practices
the main reason for the drainage of wetlands is to provide land for agriculture it is
estimated that about 75% of this has occurred in temperate latitudes that is outside the
tropics and subtropics the remaining 25% of loss has been within the tropics much land
that stuff that land has also been used for agriculture agriculture poses the greatest threat
to the species survival to get it results in so much Habitat Villa investigated the threat of
extinction to 60% of vertebrates comes from agricultural practices in south east asia it is
estimated that more than 80% of bird species have been lost as a result of clearing native
forest for the production of palm oil other aspects of intensive agriculture including the use
of pesticides and fertilizers can have far-reaching effects on header tags Agro chemicals
used are soluble in water and can be carried away from the forms there they are applied for
example the fish in coastal areas of Mexico have been badly affected by group Chemicals
entering the gulf of Mexico down the Mississippi river from forms in the centre of the USA
Deforestation
perhaps the most obvious cause of Habitat loss is deforestation in many parts of the world
at a wide range of altitudes forest forms the climate community in These areas please form
a continuous cover and provide habitats for a wide range of tree and ground dueling
species in temperate regions each species are mainly Birds but squirrels and various
reptiles are also found in the tropics and subtropics of both Africa and South America
drainex are adapted to living in forest Habitat These areas are also home to a huge variety
of tree dwelling birds in both of these regions and others millions of insects depend on the
forest for the survival the most biodiverse habitats on earth are thought to be in the tropical
rainforest of South America and Central Africa in these regions hundreds of thousands or
possibly millions of species at least loss of this Habitat or just its fragmentation is likely to
lead the loss of very many species deforestation