CLASS 12 MATHEMATICS

Chapter 4: Determinants
Complete Study Notes with Tables & Formulas

CHAPTER 4 — DETERMINANTS

1. Introduction to Determinants

A determinant is a scalar value computed from the elements of a square matrix. It is denoted as det(A) or |A|
for a matrix A. Determinants are used to solve systems of linear equations (Cramer's Rule), find the inverse
of a matrix, and determine whether a matrix is invertible.
Key Fact: A matrix is invertible (non-singular) if and only if its determinant is non-zero.

2. Determinant of Matrices by Order

Order Matrix Form Determinant Formula Result Type

1x1 [a] |A| = a Single element

2x2 [a b; c d] |A| = ad - bc Cross-multiply & subtract

3x3 [a b c; d e f; g h i] Expand along row/column Sum of cofactor expansions

2x2 Determinant Formula:

If A = [[a, b], [c, d]], then |A| = (a x d) - (b x c)

3x3 Determinant (Expanding along Row 1):

|A| = a(ei - fh) - b(di - fg) + c(dh - eg)
where elements are: Row1=[a,b,c], Row2=[d,e,f], Row3=[g,h,i]

3. Properties of Determinants

Property
Property Mathematical Statement
No.

P1 Row-Column Interchangeability |A| = |A^T| (transpose has same determinant)

P2 Sign Change on Interchange Swapping any two rows/cols changes sign of |A|

P3 Zero Determinant (Identical) |A| = 0 if any two rows or columns are identical

P4 Scalar Multiplication Multiplying a row/col by k multiplies |A| by k

P5 Zero Row/Column |A| = 0 if any row or column is all zeros

P6 Sum Property If a row is sum of two rows, |A| splits into sum of two dets
 P7 Row Operation Invariance |A| unchanged when R_i -> R_i + k*R_j

P8 Proportional Rows |A| = 0 if rows/cols are proportional (linearly dependent)

P9 Product Rule |AB| = |A| x |B|

P10 Scalar Matrix Rule |kA| = k^n |A| for n x n matrix

4. Minors and Cofactors

Term Definition Formula

Minor (M_ij) Determinant of sub-matrix obtained by deleting M_ij

i-th row
= det
andof j-th
remaining
column(n-1)x(n-1) matrix

Cofactor (A_ij) Signed minor of element a_ij A_ij = (-1)^(i+j) * M_ij

+-+
Cofactor Sign Sign pattern for 3x3 matrix -+-
+-+

Expansion Determinant via cofactor expansion |A| = a_i1*A_i1 + a_i2*A_i2 + ... + a_in*A_in

Note: If expansion is done along a row/column using elements of a DIFFERENT row/column, the result is
always 0.
5. Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix

Concept Definition / Formula Key Point

Adjoint of A
Transpose of the Cofactor Matrix of A adj(A) = [A_ji] = [A_ij]^T
(adj A)

Property of adj A A * adj(A) = adj(A) * A = |A| * I I is the Identity Matrix

Inverse of A
A^-1 = adj(A) / |A| Exists only when |A| ≠ 0
(A^-1)

Singular Matrix A matrix where |A| = 0 Inverse does NOT exist

Non-Singular A matrix where |A| ≠ 0 Inverse EXISTS

Inverse Property A * A^-1 = A^-1 * A = I AA^-1 = I (Identity)

(AB)^-1 B^-1 * A^-1 Order reverses for inverse of product

(A^T)^-1 (A^-1)^T Inverse of transpose = Transpose of inverse

adj(AB) adj(B) * adj(A) Order reverses for adjoint of product

6. Area of a Triangle Using Determinants

If the three vertices of a triangle are (x1,y1), (x2,y2), and (x3,y3), then the area of the triangle is:

Area = (1/2) |x1(y2 - y3) + x2(y3 - y1) + x3(y1 - y2)|

OR equivalently using a determinant:

Area = (1/2) * |det([[x1, y1, 1], [x2, y2, 1], [x3, y3, 1]])|

Condition Meaning

Area = 0 Points are collinear (lie on the same line)

Area > 0 Points form a valid triangle

Use |value| Area is always non-negative (use absolute value)

7. Solution of System of Linear Equations

Matrix Method (AX = B => X = A^-1 B):

A system of equations a1x+b1y+c1z=d1, a2x+b2y+c2z=d2, a3x+b3y+c3z=d3 can be written as AX = B,
where A is the coefficient matrix, X is the variable column matrix, and B is the constant column matrix.

Solution: X = A^-1 B (when |A| ≠ 0)

Cramer's Rule:
For a 3-variable system, using determinants D, D1, D2, D3:
 Determinant Description Solution

D Determinant of coefficient matrix A —

D1 Replace col-1 of A with B (constants) x = D1/D

D2 Replace col-2 of A with B (constants) y = D2/D

D3 Replace col-3 of A with B (constants) z = D3/D

Nature of Solutions (Consistency):

Condition Nature of System Number of Solutions

D≠0 Consistent & Independent Unique Solution

D = 0, D1 = D2 = D3 = 0 Consistent & Dependent Infinite Solutions

D = 0, any of D1,D2,D3 ≠ 0 Inconsistent No Solution

8. Quick Formula Reference

Formula Expression Remarks

|A^T| = |A| Transpose doesnt change determinant

|AB| = |A| x |B| Product rule

|kA| = k^n |A| n = order of matrix

A^-1 = adj(A) / |A| Only if |A| ≠ 0

[Link](A) = |A|.I Fundamental identity

|adj A| = |A|^(n-1) For n x n matrix

|A^-1| = 1/|A| Inverse determinant

Cofactor A_ij = (-1)^(i+j) M_ij M_ij is the minor

Area of triangle = (1/2)|det| With vertices as rows with 1 appended

Collinear points det = 0 Area of triangle is zero

Class 12 Maths | Chapter 4: Determinants | Study Notes