SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Complete [Link] Notes

Formulas · Derivations · Variable Glossary

SYLLABUS COVERAGE

✓ Conduction in Metals & Semiconductors

✓ Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function & Fermi Level

✓ Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductors

✓ Intrinsic & Extrinsic Conductivity

✓ Law of Mass Action, Charge Neutrality Condition

✓ Carrier Concentrations & Temperature Dependence

✓ Effect of Impurity & Temperature on Fermi Level

✓ Hall Effect & Applications

✓ Drift & Diffusion Current Density

✓ P-N Junction: Formation, Biasing, Devices (LED, Zener, Photoconductor, Solar Cell)
 CHAPTER 1: Conduction in Metals & Semiconductors

1.1 Conduction in Metals

Metals possess a partially filled conduction band. Valence electrons are weakly bound and form a 'free
electron gas'. When an external electric field is applied, electrons acquire a drift velocity superimposed on
random thermal motion, producing current.
• High conductivity (σ ~ 107 S/m for Cu)
• Only one carrier type: electrons
• Conductivity decreases with temperature (more lattice scattering)

1.2 Conduction in Semiconductors

Semiconductors conduct via two carrier types — electrons (in conduction band) and holes (in valence band).
The band gap Eg separates the bands.

Material Band Gap (eV) Conductivity (S/m) Type

Silicon (Si) 1.12 ~4×10■■ Elemental

Germanium (Ge) 0.72 ~2.2 Elemental

Diamond (C) 5.6 ~10■¹² Insulator-like

GaAs 1.42 varies Compound

1.3 Energy Band Theory

When N atoms form a solid, atomic orbitals split into N closely spaced levels forming energy bands. The gap
between valence band (VB) and conduction band (CB) is called the forbidden energy gap Eg.
• Conductor: Bands overlap, or CB partially filled → free electrons always available
• Insulator: Large Eg (>3 eV) → electrons cannot cross gap at room temperature
• Semiconductor: Small Eg (0.1–3 eV) → thermal excitation possible

Band Gap

Eg = EC - EV

Variable Meaning / Units

Eg Energy band gap (eV or J)

EC Energy of conduction band bottom edge (eV)

EV Energy of valence band top edge (eV)

 CHAPTER 2: Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function & Fermi Level

2.1 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function

The Fermi-Dirac function gives the probability that a quantum state of energy E is occupied by an electron
(fermion) at absolute temperature T.

Fermi-Dirac Function

f(E) = 1 / [1 + exp((E - EF) / kT)]

Variable Meaning / Units

f(E) Probability of occupancy of state at energy E [0 to 1]

E Energy of the state under consideration (eV or J)

EF Fermi energy / Fermi level (eV or J)

k Boltzmann's constant = 1.381 × 10■²³ J/K = 8.617 × 10■■ eV/K

T Absolute temperature (Kelvin)

kT Thermal energy ≈ 0.026 eV at 300 K

(E - EF) Excess energy above Fermi level due to temperature

2.2 Special Cases of the Fermi Function

Condition Result Physical Meaning

T = 0 K, E < E_F f(E) = 1 (100%) All states below E_F are completely filled

T = 0 K, E > E_F f(E) = 0 (0%) All states above E_F are completely empty

Any T, E = E_F f(E) = 0.5 (50%) Fermi level has exactly 50% occupancy probability

T > 0 K, E near E_F0 < f(E) < 1 Distribution blurs around E_F due to thermal excitation

2.3 Fermi Level in Conductors, Insulators & Semiconductors

Material Fermi Level Position E_gConductivity

Metal (Conductor) Inside an allowed energy band (partially filled)

0 (overlapping bands)
Very High ~10■ S/m

Insulator Middle of large forbidden gap > 3 eV ~0 (negligible)

Intrinsic Semiconductor Middle of small forbidden gap 0.1–3 eV Low but finite

n-type Semiconductor Shifted UP toward conduction band same as base SC

Increased

p-type Semiconductor Shifted DOWN toward valence band same as base SC

Increased
 CHAPTER 3: Density of States & Carrier Concentrations

3.1 Density of States Z(E)

The Density of States Z(E) is defined as the number of allowed quantum energy states per unit volume per unit
energy interval near energy E.

Density of States (3D Free Electron)

Z(E) dE = (4π / h³) × (2m)3/2 × E1/2 dE

Variable Meaning / Units

Z(E) Density of states per unit volume per unit energy (m■³ J■¹)

h Planck's constant = 6.626 × 10■³■ J·s

m Mass of electron = 9.11 × 10■³¹ kg

E Energy of the state (J)

Total number of carriers = integral of [Z(E) × f(E)] over the band.

3.2 Electron Concentration in Conduction Band

Electrons in conduction band have energies from EC to ∞. Using Boltzmann approximation (valid when E - EF
>> kT):

Step 1: n = ∫[EC to ∞] Z(E) · f(E) dE

Step 2: Use modified density of states for CB: Z(E)dE = (4π/h³)·(2me*)^(3/2)·(E - EC)^(1/2)·dE

Step 3: Apply Boltzmann approximation: f(E) ≈ exp[-(E - EF)/kT]

Step 4: Substitute x = (E - EC)/kT and use standard integral ∫x^(1/2)·e^(-x)dx = √π/2

Result → n = NC · exp[-(EC - EF)/kT]

Electron Concentration (Conduction Band)

n = NC · exp[ -(EC - EF) / kT ]

Effective Density of States in CB

NC = 2 × (2π me* kT / h²)3/2

Variable Meaning / Units

n Electron concentration in conduction band (m■³)

NC Effective density of states in conduction band (m■³)

me* Effective mass of electron (accounts for crystal interaction) (kg)

EC Bottom edge energy of conduction band (eV)

 EF Fermi level energy (eV)

k Boltzmann's constant = 1.381 × 10■²³ J/K

T Absolute temperature (K)

h Planck's constant = 6.626 × 10■³■ J·s

Note: For Si at 300 K, NC ≈ 2.8 × 10²■ m■³

3.3 Hole Concentration in Valence Band

Holes are absent electrons. Probability that a state at energy E is vacant (i.e., a hole exists) = [1 - f(E)].

Step 1: p = ∫[-∞ to EV] Z(E) · [1 - f(E)] dE

Step 2: [1 - f(E)] ≈ exp[-(EF - E)/kT] (Boltzmann approx for holes)

Step 3: Modified DOS for VB uses (EV - E)^(1/2) and mh* (hole effective mass)

Step 4: Evaluate the integral using same standard form

Result → p = NV · exp[-(EF - EV)/kT]

Hole Concentration (Valence Band)

p = NV · exp[ -(EF - EV) / kT ]

Effective Density of States in VB

NV = 2 × (2π mh* kT / h²)3/2

Variable Meaning / Units

p Hole concentration in valence band (m■³)

NV Effective density of states in valence band (m■³)

mh* Effective mass of hole (kg)

EV Top edge energy of valence band (eV)

Note: For Si at 300 K, NV ≈ 10²■ m■³

 CHAPTER 4: Intrinsic Semiconductors

4.1 Definition

A chemically pure semiconductor (< 1 impurity per billion atoms) where electrical conduction arises entirely
from thermally generated electron-hole pairs. For every electron excited to CB, one hole is created in VB.

Intrinsic Condition

n = p = ni

4.2 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration (Derivation)

Multiply n and p expressions:

Step 1: ni² = n × p = [NC·exp(-(EC-EF)/kT)] × [NV·exp(-(EF-EV)/kT)]

Step 2: ni² = NC·NV · exp[-(EC-EV)/kT]

Step 3: Since EC - EV = Eg (band gap):

Step 4: ni² = NC·NV · exp(-Eg/kT)

Step 5: Take square root:

Result → ni = √(NC·NV) · exp(-Eg/2kT)

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

ni = 2(2πkT/h²)3/2 × (me* mh*)3/4 × exp(-Eg/2kT)

Variable Meaning / Units

ni Intrinsic carrier concentration (m■³)

Eg Band gap energy = EC - EV (eV)

me* Effective mass of electron (kg)

mh* Effective mass of hole (kg)

k Boltzmann's constant (J/K)

T Temperature (K)

h Planck's constant (J·s)

Key observations: ni increases exponentially with T; larger Eg → smaller ni; ni is independent of Fermi level
position.
Si at 300K: ni = 1.5×10¹■ m■³ | Ge at 300K: ni = 2.5×10¹■ m■³

4.3 Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor (Derivation)

Use n = p for intrinsic material:

 Step 1: NC·exp(-(EC-EF)/kT) = NV·exp(-(EF-EV)/kT)

Step 2: Take natural log: ln(NC) - (EC-EF)/kT = ln(NV) - (EF-EV)/kT

Step 3: Rearrange: 2EF = (EC+EV) + kT·ln(NV/NC)

Step 4: Since NV/NC = (mh*/me*)^(3/2)

Result → EF = (EC+EV)/2 + (3kT/4)·ln(mh*/me*)

Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor

EF = (EC + EV)/2 + (3kT/4) × ln(mh* / me*)

If mh* = me*, the log term vanishes and:

Simplified Fermi Level (equal effective masses)

EF = (EC + EV) / 2 = EV + Eg/2

∴ The Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the forbidden gap in an intrinsic semiconductor.

4.4 Intrinsic Conductivity

Intrinsic Conductivity

σi = e · ni · (µe + µh)

Temperature Dependence

σi = σo · exp(-Eg / 2kT)

Variable Meaning / Units

σi Intrinsic conductivity (S/m or Ω■¹m■¹)

e Elementary charge = 1.602 × 10■¹■ C

ni Intrinsic carrier concentration (m■³)

µe Electron mobility (m²/V·s) — ease of electron movement

µh Hole mobility (m²/V·s) — ease of hole movement

σo Pre-exponential constant (material-dependent)

Taking ln: ln σi = ln σo - Eg/2kT. A plot of ln σ vs 1/T gives slope = -Eg/2k → used to determine band gap
experimentally.

4.5 Fraction of Electrons in Conduction Band

Fraction of electrons excited to CB

n/N = exp(-Eg / 2kT)

 Variable Meaning / Units

n Number of electrons in conduction band (m■³)

N Total number of valence electrons available (m■³)

Eg Band gap (eV)

Example values at 300 K: Ge → 9.7×10■■; Si → 8.75×10■¹■; Diamond → 9.2×10■■■

 CHAPTER 5: Extrinsic Semiconductors

5.1 Doping

Intentional introduction of controlled impurity (dopant) atoms into intrinsic semiconductor. Typical doping: 10²■
to 10²■ atoms/m³. Advantages: high conductivity, tailorable, temperature-stable in extrinsic region.

5.2 n-type Semiconductor

Dopant: Pentavalent atoms (P, As, Sb). 4 electrons bond with Si atoms; 5th electron loosely bound with
ionisation energy ~0.045 eV → easily donated to CB. Donor level ED lies just below EC.
• Majority carriers: Electrons (nn)
• Minority carriers: Holes (pn)
• Fermi level shifts UP toward EC

n-type Majority Carrier Concentration

nn ≈ ND (in extrinsic/depletion region)

n-type Fermi Level (at 0K)

EFN = (EC + ED) / 2

5.3 p-type Semiconductor

Dopant: Trivalent atoms (B, Al, Ga, In). Only 3 valence electrons → incomplete 4th bond → accepts electron
from VB leaving a hole. Acceptor level EA lies just above EV (~0.01 eV above VB).
• Majority carriers: Holes (pp)
• Minority carriers: Electrons (np)
• Fermi level shifts DOWN toward EV

p-type Majority Carrier Concentration

pp ≈ NA (in saturation region)

p-type Fermi Level (at 0K)

EFP = (EV + EA) / 2

Variable Meaning / Units

ND Donor impurity concentration (m■³)

NA Acceptor impurity concentration (m■³)

nn Electron concentration in n-type semiconductor (m■³)

pn Hole concentration in n-type semiconductor (m■³)

pp Hole concentration in p-type semiconductor (m■³)

 np Electron concentration in p-type semiconductor (m■³)

ED Donor energy level (eV) — just below EC

EA Acceptor energy level (eV) — just above EV

EFN Fermi level in n-type semiconductor (eV)

EFP Fermi level in p-type semiconductor (eV)

5.4 Extrinsic Conductivity

n-type Conductivity

σn = ND · e · µe

p-type Conductivity

σp = NA · e · µh

In the extrinsic region, conductivity is independent of temperature — the great advantage over intrinsic
semiconductors.

5.5 Law of Mass Action

The product of majority and minority carrier concentrations in any semiconductor (intrinsic or extrinsic) at
thermal equilibrium is a constant equal to ni².

Law of Mass Action

n · p = ni² (for any semiconductor at thermal equilibrium)

For n-type:

nn · pn = ni²

For p-type:

pp · np = ni²

Physical meaning: Increasing majority carriers (by doping) increases recombination rate → minority carrier
concentration decreases below intrinsic value.

Variable Meaning / Units

n Electron concentration (m■³)

p Hole concentration (m■³)

ni Intrinsic carrier concentration (m■³) — function of T and Eg only

5.6 Charge Neutrality Condition

A doped semiconductor is electrically neutral as a whole. Total positive charge = total negative charge.

n-type: Mobile electrons = Ionized donors + Thermally generated holes

nn = ND + pn

Since nn >> pn → nn ≈ ND

p-type: Mobile holes = Ionized acceptors + Thermally generated electrons

pp = NA + np

Since pp >> np → pp ≈ NA

5.7 Minority Carrier Concentration

Minority holes in n-type

pn = ni² / ND

Minority electrons in p-type

np = ni² / NA
 CHAPTER 6: Effect of Temperature & Impurity on Fermi Level

6.1 Effect of Temperature on EF in n-type Semiconductor

Three regions exist as temperature is raised:

Region Temperature E_F Position Carrier Source

Ionization T ~ 0-100 K Between E_D and E_C;

Donor atoms
starts
being
at (E_C+E<sub>D</su
ionized

Depletion (Extrinsic) 100-500 K Moves DOWN toward mid-gap (E_Fi)

All donors ionized; n≈N_D = constant

Intrinsic T > T_i Reaches E_Fi = E_g/2

Thermal generation
(mid-gap) dominates; n=n_i

At high temperature: All extrinsic semiconductors revert to intrinsic behaviour — Fermi level returns to mid-gap
EFi.

6.2 Effect of Temperature on EF in p-type Semiconductor

Mirror image of n-type: EFP starts at (EV+EA)/2 at 0K, moves UP as temperature rises, reaches mid-gap EFi at
high T.

6.3 Effect of Impurity Concentration on Fermi Level

As doping concentration increases:

• n-type: EFN moves progressively closer to EC. At very heavy doping, EFN enters the conduction band
(degenerate semiconductor).
• p-type: EFP moves progressively closer to EV. At very heavy doping, EFP enters the valence band.
Fermi level in n-type as function of doping (general expression):

EF in n-type (general)

EFN = (EC+ED)/2 + (kT/2)·ln(ND / NC)

Fermi level in p-type (general):

EF in p-type (general)

EFP = (EV+EA)/2 - (kT/2)·ln(NA / NV)

 CHAPTER 7: Hall Effect & Applications

7.1 Definition

When a current-carrying conductor or semiconductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field B, a

potential difference (Hall voltage VH) develops perpendicular to both current and magnetic field directions.
Discovered by E.H. Hall in 1879.

7.2 Mechanism (for p-type)

Setup: Current I flows in +x direction. Magnetic field B in +z direction. Holes (majority carriers in p-type) drift in
+x direction with velocity vd.

Step 1: Magnetic (Lorentz) force on holes: FL = e·vd·B (directed in -y direction)

Step 2: Holes accumulate on front face → positive charge builds up

Step 3: This creates Hall electric field EH in -y direction

Step 4: Electric force: FE = e·EH (opposing FL)

Step 5: Equilibrium when FE = FL: e·EH = e·vd·B

Step 6: EH = vd·B = (Jx/pe)·B

Step 7: VH = EH·w = B·I / (p·e·t)

7.3 Key Formulas

Hall Voltage

VH = B · I / (n · e · t) [for holes: replace n with p]

Hall Coefficient

RH = EH / (Jx · B) = +1/(pe) for p-type; -1/(ne) for n-type

Hall Voltage (using RH)

VH = RH · B · I / t

Hall Electric Field

EH = VH/w = B·vd = RH·Jx·B

Carrier Drift Velocity

vd = VH / (B · w)
 Carrier Concentration from Hall Effect

n = 1 / (|RH| · e) or p = 1 / (|RH| · e)

Hall Mobility

µH = σ · |RH|

Hall Angle

tan θH = EH/Ex = µH · B

Variable Meaning / Units

VH Hall voltage (V)

B Magnetic field / magnetic induction (T = Wb/m²)

I Current through the sample (A)

t Thickness of the sample in the direction of B (m)

w Width of the sample perpendicular to I and B (m)

n Carrier concentration (m■³)

e Elementary charge = 1.602 × 10■¹■ C

RH Hall coefficient (m³/C) — +ve for p-type, -ve for n-type

EH Hall electric field (V/m)

Jx Current density in x-direction (A/m²)

vd Mean drift velocity of charge carriers (m/s)

µH Hall mobility (m²/V·s)

σ Electrical conductivity (S/m)

θH Hall angle — angle between net E-field and x-axis

7.4 Sign Convention & Semiconductor Identification

Parameter n-type p-type

Majority carriers Electrons Holes

Deflection Accumulate on -y face Accumulate on +y face

Hall voltage sign Negative Positive

R_H −1/(ne) +1/(pe)

7.5 Applications of Hall Effect

• 1. Semiconductor Type Identification: Sign of VH reveals n-type (−ve) or p-type (+ve)

• 2. Carrier Concentration: From RH = 1/(ne) or 1/(pe), find n or p
• 3. Carrier Mobility: µ = σ|RH| combining Hall measurement with conductivity
• 4. Magnetic Field Measurement: Hall probes measure B up to 10¹² Hz, static & AC fields
• 5. Current Sensing: Measures heavy currents without circuit interruption
• 6. Proximity Switches: Digital switch in printers, position sensors
• 7. Power Measurement: In EM waves, VH ∝ E×H = power density
• 8. SQUIDs: Superconducting devices using Hall principle — detect brain magnetic fields
 CHAPTER 8: Drift & Diffusion Current Density

8.1 Drift Current

When an electric field E is applied across a semiconductor, charge carriers acquire a drift velocity vd
superimposed on random thermal motion. This produces drift current.

Drift Velocity

vd = µ · E [electrons: vde = µeE; holes: vdh = µhE]

Electron Drift Current Density

Je(drift) = n · e · µe · E

Hole Drift Current Density

Jh(drift) = p · e · µh · E

Total Drift Current Density

Jdrift = e(n·µe + p·µh)·E = σ·E

Conductivity

σ = e(n·µe + p·µh)

8.2 Diffusion Current

When there is a concentration gradient (non-uniform carrier distribution), carriers diffuse from high
concentration to low concentration regions. No external field needed.

Electron Diffusion Current Density

Je(diff) = e · De · (dn/dx)

Hole Diffusion Current Density

Jh(diff) = -e · Dh · (dp/dx)

The negative sign for holes: holes flow down their concentration gradient (+x when dp/dx < 0), but conventional
current is in -x direction.

Variable Meaning / Units

vd Drift velocity (m/s)

µe Electron mobility (m²/V·s) — drift velocity per unit field

 µh Hole mobility (m²/V·s)

E Applied electric field (V/m)

J Current density (A/m²)

n Electron concentration (m■³)

p Hole concentration (m■³)

De Diffusion coefficient for electrons (m²/s)

Dh Diffusion coefficient for holes (m²/s)

dn/dx Electron concentration gradient (m■■)

dp/dx Hole concentration gradient (m■■)

σ Electrical conductivity (S/m)

8.3 Total Current Density (Drift + Diffusion)

Total Electron Current

Je = e·n·µe·E + e·De·(dn/dx)

Total Hole Current

Jh = e·p·µh·E - e·Dh·(dp/dx)

8.4 Einstein Relations

Drift and diffusion are related through thermal energy — both governed by same scattering mechanisms:

Einstein Relations

De/µe = Dh/µh = kT/e = VT

Variable Meaning / Units

VT Thermal voltage = kT/e ≈ 0.026 V at 300 K

kT/e = 0.026 eV at 300 K — relates D to µ

8.5 Minority Carrier Diffusion

In an extrinsic semiconductor, an external disturbance (heat/light) creates excess minority carriers which
diffuse into the bulk and recombine exponentially:

Excess Electron Decay with Distance

∆n(x) = n(0) · exp(-x / Ln)

 Excess Carrier Decay with Time

∆n(t) = n(0) · exp(-t / τn)

Diffusion Length

Ln = √(Dn · τn) | Lh = √(Dh · τh)

Variable Meaning / Units

Ln Electron diffusion length (m) — average distance before recombination

Lh Hole diffusion length (m)

τn Mean lifetime of minority electrons (s)

τh Mean lifetime of minority holes (s)

∆n(x) Excess electron concentration at position x (m■³)

n(0) Excess concentration at injection point (m■³)

 CHAPTER 9: P-N Junction — Formation & Biasing

9.1 Formation of P-N Junction

When a p-type and n-type semiconductor are joined, carriers near the junction undergo the following sequence:

Step 1 — Diffusion: Holes from p-side diffuse into n-side; electrons from n-side diffuse into
p-side

Step 2 — Ionisation: Diffused carriers leave behind fixed ionised atoms: negative ions on p-side,
positive ions on n-side

Step 3 — Depletion Region: A region devoid of mobile carriers forms at the junction — the
'depletion region' or 'space charge region'

Step 4 — Built-in Field: Fixed ions create an internal electric field E0 pointing from n-side (+) to
p-side (−)

Step 5 — Equilibrium: E0 opposes further diffusion; drift balances diffusion → net current = 0

9.2 Barrier Potential (Contact Potential)

Barrier Potential

VB = (kT/e) · ln(NA · ND / ni²)

Typical values: Si → 0.7 V; Ge → 0.3 V

Variable Meaning / Units

VB Barrier potential / built-in potential (V)

NA Acceptor concentration (m■³)

ND Donor concentration (m■³)

ni Intrinsic carrier concentration (m■³)

k Boltzmann's constant

T Temperature (K)

e Elementary charge (C)

9.3 Carrier Current Densities in P-N Junction

Condition Barrier Depletion Width Net Current

Equilibrium (V=0) V_B W₀ Zero (drift = diffusion)

Forward Bias (+V_F

V_B
on p) - V_F
Decreases Large forward current I ∝ exp(eV/kT)

Reverse Bias (+V_R

V_B
on n) + V_R
Increases Tiny reverse saturation current I_o
 Diode Equation (Shockley Equation)

I = Io · [exp(eV / kT) - 1]

Variable Meaning / Units

I Diode current (A)

Io Reverse saturation current (A) — depends on T and ni

V Applied voltage (+ve for forward, -ve for reverse) (V)

e Elementary charge (C)

k Boltzmann's constant (J/K)

T Temperature (K)
 CHAPTER 10: P-N Junction Devices

10.1 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

A heavily doped, forward-biased p-n junction where injected minority carriers recombine with majority
carriers, releasing energy as photons (electroluminescence).
• Requires direct band gap semiconductor (GaAs, GaP, InP) — radiative recombination
• Silicon and Germanium are indirect gap → energy released as heat, not light

Photon Wavelength Emitted

λ = hc / Eg → λ(nm) = 1240 / Eg(eV)

Variable Meaning / Units

λ Wavelength of emitted light (m or nm)

h Planck's constant = 6.626 × 10■³■ J·s

c Speed of light = 3 × 10■ m/s

Eg Band gap energy of LED material (eV)

Condition: hν ≥ Eg for photon emission. Higher Eg → shorter wavelength (violet/UV); lower Eg → longer
wavelength (red/IR).

10.2 Zener Diode

Specially designed to operate safely in the reverse-bias breakdown region. Maintains a constant voltage VZ
across it regardless of current variation — used for voltage regulation.
• Zener Breakdown: Occurs at low reverse voltage (~5V) due to strong electric field directly breaking
covalent bonds (quantum tunnelling/field ionisation). Dominant in heavily doped junctions.
• Avalanche Breakdown: Occurs at higher reverse voltage — energetic carriers cause impact ionisation
(carrier multiplication). Dominant in lightly doped junctions.

Zener Regulation Condition

Vout = VZ = constant (for IZ,min < IZ < IZ,max)

Variable Meaning / Units

VZ Zener breakdown voltage (V)

IZ,min Minimum Zener current to maintain regulation (A)

IZ,max Maximum Zener current (limited by power rating PZ=VZ·IZ,max) (A)

10.3 Photoconductors (LDRs)

A material whose electrical conductivity increases when illuminated by light (photoconductive effect). Incident
photons with hν ≥ Eg generate additional electron-hole pairs → increases carrier concentration → increases σ.
 Condition for Photoconductivity

hν ≥ Eg i.e. ν ≥ Eg/h

Change in Conductivity

∆σ = e · ∆n · (µe + µh)

Variable Meaning / Units

hν Photon energy (J or eV) [h=Planck's constant, ν=frequency of light]

Eg Band gap of photoconductor (eV)

∆n Excess carrier concentration generated by light (m■³)

∆σ Change in conductivity due to illumination (S/m)

µe,µh Electron and hole mobilities (m²/V·s)

When light is switched off, excess carriers recombine and conductivity returns to dark value. Applications: LDRs,
photodiodes, camera exposure meters.

10.4 Solar Cells (Photovoltaic Effect)

A solar cell converts solar (optical) energy into electrical energy via the photovoltaic effect in a p-n junction.

Step 1 — Absorption: Photons with hν ≥ Eg are absorbed, generating electron-hole pairs near
the junction

Step 2 — Separation: The built-in electric field of the depletion region separates pairs —
electrons to n-side, holes to p-side

Step 3 — Photo-EMF: Accumulation of separated charges creates a voltage (open-circuit voltage

VOC)

Step 4 — Current Flow: When connected to external circuit, short-circuit current ISC flows

Solar Cell Equation

I = ISC - Io·[exp(eV/kT) - 1]

Open-Circuit Voltage

VOC = (kT/e) · ln(ISC/Io + 1)

Maximum Power

Pmax = Vmp · Imp

Fill Factor

FF = Pmax / (VOC × ISC)

 Efficiency

η = Pmax / Pincident = FF × VOC × ISC / Pin

Variable Meaning / Units

ISC Short-circuit current (A) — proportional to light intensity

VOC Open-circuit voltage (V)

Io Dark saturation current (A)

Vmp Voltage at maximum power point (V)

Imp Current at maximum power point (A)

FF Fill factor (dimensionless, ideally close to 1)

η Solar cell efficiency

Pin Incident solar power density (W/m²)

 QUICK REFERENCE — ALL KEY FORMULAS

Formula Name Equation

Fermi-Dirac Function f(E) = 1 / [1 + exp((E−E_F)/kT)]

Density of States Z(E)dE = (4π/h³)(2m)^(3/2) E^(1/2) dE

Electron Concentration n = N_C·exp[−(E_C−E_F)/kT]

Hole Concentration p = N_V·exp[−(E_F−E_V)/kT]

Effective DOS in CB N_C = 2(2πm_e*kT/h²)^(3/2)

Effective DOS in VB N_V = 2(2πm_h*kT/h²)^(3/2)

Intrinsic Carrier Conc. n_i = 2(2πkT/h²)^(3/2)(m_e*m_h*)^(3/4)·exp(−E<sub>g</su

Law of Mass Action n·p = n_i²

Fermi Level (Intrinsic) E_F = (E_C+E_V)/2 + (3kT/4)ln(m_h*/m<sub>

Intrinsic Conductivity σ_i = e·n_i·(µ_e+µ_h) = σ_oexp(−E

n-type Conductivity σ_n = N_D·e·µ_e

p-type Conductivity σ_p = N_A·e·µ_h

Minority Carriers (n-type) p_n = n_i² / N_D

Minority Carriers (p-type) n_p = n_i² / N_A

Fermi Level (n-type, 0K) E_FN = (E_C+E_D)/2

Fermi Level (p-type, 0K) E_FP = (E_V+E_A)/2

Hall Voltage V_H = BI/(net)

Hall Coefficient R_H = ±1/(ne) [−:n-type, +:p-type]

Hall Mobility µ_H = σ|R_H|

Drift Velocity v_d = µE = V_H/(Bw)

Drift Current Density J_drift = e(nµ_e+pµ_h)E

Diffusion Current (e■) J_e(diff) = eD_e(dn/dx)

Diffusion Current (holes) J_h(diff) = −eD_h(dp/dx)

Einstein Relation D_e/µ_e = D_h/µ_h = kT/e = 0.026 V at 300K

Diffusion Length L_n = √(D_nτ_n)

Barrier Potential V_B = (kT/e)ln(N_AN_D/n_i²)

Diode (Shockley) Equation I = I_o[exp(eV/kT) − 1]

LED Wavelength λ(nm) = 1240 / E_g(eV)

Photoconductivity Condition hν ≥ E_g

Solar Cell V_OC V_OC = (kT/e)ln(I_SC/I_o + 1)

Fill Factor FF = P_max / (V_OC·I_SC)

Electron Fraction in CB n/N = exp(−E_g/2kT)

Important Physical Constants

Constant Symbol Value

Boltzmann's constant k 1.381 × 10■²³ J/K = 8.617 × 10■■ eV/K

Planck's constant h 6.626 × 10■³■ J·s

Elementary charge e 1.602 × 10■¹■ C

Electron rest mass m 9.109 × 10■³¹ kg

Speed of light c 2.998 × 10■ m/s

Thermal voltage (300K) kT/e 0.02585 V ≈ 0.026 V

kT at 300K kT 0.02585 eV = 4.14 × 10■²¹ J

1 eV — 1.602 × 10■¹■ J

Si band gap (300K) E_g(Si)

1.12 eV

Ge band gap (300K) E_g(Ge)

0.72 eV

Diamond band gap E_g(C)

5.6 eV

Si n_i (300K) n_i 1.5 × 10¹■ m■³

Ge n_i (300K) n_i 2.5 × 10¹■ m■³

Semiconductor Physics Notes | [Link] Engineering Physics | All formulas, derivations & variable definitions included