DEFORMABLE BODIES AND ENGINEERING
SIGNIFICANCE
Deformable Body
A deformable body is a solid object whose shape, size, or internal configuration
changes when subjected to external influences such as:
Forces
Moments (torques)
Temperature changes
Constraints or supports
These changes may be:
Very small (micrometers, microstrains)
Large enough to see (beam deflection, buckling)
📌 Key idea:
Even when deformation is not visible, it still exists and still affects performance.
2. Deformable vs Rigid Body (Engineering Perspective)
Rigid Body Deformable Body
Assumes no deformation Allows deformation
Used in Statics & Dynamics Used in Mechanics of Materials
Only equilibrium matters Stress, strain, deformation matter
Example:
Rigid-body assumption:
“Will the beam collapse?”
Deformable-body analysis:
“Will the beam bend too much and crack the ceiling?”
📌 Relation to deformable bodies:
All real materials deform. Engineering design cannot ignore deformation.
3. Why Deformation Matters in Engineering Design
Engineering design must satisfy two independent but related criteria:
(a) Strength Requirement
The structure must not fail or fracture.
Stress must not exceed allowable limits
Failure modes:
o Yielding
o Fracture
o Buckling
Example:
A steel bar breaking under excessive tension
(b) Serviceability Requirement
The structure must not deform excessively.
Even if no failure occurs, deformation may:
Cause misalignment
Damage nonstructural components
Create unsafe or uncomfortable conditions
Examples:
A bridge that vibrates or deflects too much
A machine shaft that twists and causes gear noise
A floor that “feels soft” when walked on
📌 Critical insight:
A structure can be safe but unacceptable due to deformation.
4. External Forces and Internal Resistance
When an external load is applied:
1. External forces attempt to deform the body
2. The material develops internal resisting forces
3. These internal forces distribute themselves over cross-sections
This internal resistance is quantified as stress.
📌 Relation to deformable bodies:
Deformation is the visible result of internal resistance trying to balance external
loading.
LOAD CLASSIFICATION
1. Definition: Load
A load is any external action that produces:
Stress
Strain
Deformation
Loads can arise from:
Weight
People
Wind
Machines
Temperature change
Ground movement
📌 Why load classification matters:
Different loads produce different deformation patterns.
2. Classification by Nature of Action
(a) Axial Load
Definition:
A load acting along the centroidal axis of a member.
Effect on deformable body:
Produces uniform elongation or shortening
Causes normal stress
Types:
Tension: elongation
Compression: shortening
Example:
Suspension cable in a bridge
Column carrying building weight
📌 Deformation connection:
Axial loads directly cause change in length.
(b) Shear Load
Definition:
A load acting parallel to a cross-sectional area.
Effect:
Causes sliding between adjacent material layers
Produces shear stress
Example:
Bolts in a steel connection
Rivets in an aircraft skin
📌 Deformation connection:
Shear loads cause distortion without change in length.
(c) Bending Load
Definition:
A load that causes a member to curve or bend.
Effect:
One side in tension
Opposite side in compression
Neutral axis with zero stress
Example:
Beam supporting a floor
Diving board
📌 Deformation connection:
Bending is a non-uniform deformation across the cross-section.
(d) Torsional Load
Definition:
A load that causes a member to twist about its longitudinal axis.
Effect:
Produces shear stress
Causes angular deformation (twist)
Example:
Drive shafts
Screwdrivers
📌 Deformation connection:
Torsion produces rotational deformation, not linear displacement.
(e) Thermal Load
Definition:
Deformation caused by temperature change.
Effect:
Expansion when heated
Contraction when cooled
Example:
Railway tracks
Pipelines
📌 Critical insight:
Even without external forces, deformation occurs.
3. Classification by Distribution
(a) Concentrated Load
Idealized as acting at a point
Simplifies analysis
Example:
Wheel load on a bridge
📌 Deformation effect:
Causes localized stress and deflection.
(b) Distributed Load
Spread over length or area
Can be uniform or varying
Example:
Self-weight of a beam
📌 Deformation effect:
Produces smoother stress and deflection patterns.
(c) Body Force
Acts throughout volume
Proportional to mass
Example:
Gravity
📌 Deformation effect:
Leads to gradual deformation over entire body.
CONCEPT OF STRESS
1. Definition: Stress
Stress is the intensity of internal force developed per unit area.
𝑃 𝑉
𝜎 = 𝜏 =
𝐴 𝐴
📌 Important:
Stress is not force, but force distribution.
2. Why Stress is Needed
Two members may carry the same force but behave differently.
Example:
Thick bar vs thin wire under same load
Thin wire:
Higher stress
Larger deformation
Higher risk of failure
📌 Relation to deformable bodies:
Stress governs how much deformation occurs.
3. Types of Stress
(a) Normal Stress
Acts perpendicular to area
Causes length change
Tension → elongation
Compression → shortening
Example:
Column shortening under load
(b) Shear Stress
Acts parallel to area
Causes angular distortion
Example:
Punching shear in slabs
4. Average vs Actual Stress
Average stress: uniform assumption
Actual stress: varies across section
Engineering starts with average stress, then refines if needed.
📌 Deformation link:
Non-uniform stress → non-uniform deformation.
STRESS UNDER CENTRIC LOADING
1. Definition: Centric Loading
A load is centric if it passes through the centroid.
Effects:
Uniform stress
No bending
Predictable deformation
2. Engineering Importance
Simplifies analysis
Reduces risk of bending failure
Example:
Properly aligned column
📌 Deformation connection:
Pure axial deformation only.
STRESS CONCENTRATION
1. Definition: Stress Concentration
Stress concentration occurs when local stress exceeds average stress due to
geometry.
2. Causes
Holes
Notches
Sharp corners
Cracks
3. Stress Concentration Factor
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾𝑡 =
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔
If ( 𝐾𝑡 = 3 ), stress triples locally.
4. Engineering Significance
Most failures start at stress concentrations
Especially critical in:
o Brittle materials
o Fatigue loading
5. Reducing Stress Concentration
Fillets
Gradual transitions
Rounded holes
📌 Deformation link:
Localized deformation precedes fracture.
How All Concepts Connect to Deformable Bodies
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 Role in Deformation
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 Causes deformation
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 Internal response
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 Measure of deformation
𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦 Controls stress distribution
𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 Controls stiffness and failure