Religious traditions in india-
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Notes
THE EMERGENCE OF BUDDHISM AND JAINlSM
○ The roots of Mahavira's and Buddha's social philosophy can be clearly traced
back to the society of the sixth century B.C.
○ The sixth century BC marked an important stage in the Indian history as far as
the development of new religions is concerned. Numerous religious sects arose
in the mid-Gangetic plains as a result of an upheaval of new ideas and the
resulting rise of new philosophical tenets.
○ In this period, we notice a growing resentment to the ritualistic orthodox ideas of
the Brahmanas, wave of discontentment with the traditions of Kingships,
priesthood and ritualistic sacrifices. People were waking up to find answers to
their questions regarding salvation and the ultimate Truth.
○ The emphasis on sacrifices, rituals and the dominance of Brahmanas had vitiated
the original doctrines of Hinduism. Society was largely guided by Brahmanism
which was firmly established by now and priesthood had also become
predominant.
○ It was against this background of exploitation of the masses by the Brahmanas
and discrimination among people on the basis of caste system that Mahavira and
Buddha revolted. They came forward as reformers very much determined to clean
Hinduism of its innumerable evil practices and evils.
○ They did not want to start new or independent religions but drew their
inspiration from the teachings as embodied in the Upanishads.
○ They did not approve the costly religious rituals and bloody sacrifices. There was
hatred against the prevailing social order which led to pitiable conditions of the
low born.
○ The changing features of social and economic life, such as the growth of towns,
expansion of the artisan class and the rapid development of trade and commerce
also focused on the necessity to bring about changes in society and religion.
○ The new ideas brought about by the reform movements challenged the
established social order particularly the caste-system, the religious rituals and
sacrifices, the supremacy of the Brahmanas, particularly by the Kshatriyas,
○ It was based on elevation of man individually and spiritually. It emphasized
personal liberty and purity and claimed that every individual had the right to
attain Nirvana.
JAINISM
1. Historical Background
● 6th century BC marked by major socio-economic changes in India (urbanization, trade,
caste tensions).
● These changes led to the emergence of reformist movements like Jainism and
Buddhism challenging Vedic rituals and priestly dominance.
● Jainism is considered a heterodox sect due to its rejection of Vedic authority and
rituals.
2. Tirthankaras in Jain Tradition
● Jainism speaks of 24 Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers).
● Rishabha, the first Tirthankara, is claimed to be mentioned in the Rigveda, though this
is debated.
● Historical evidence exists only for the 23rd (Parsva) and 24th (Mahavira)
Tirthankaras.
○ Parsva: Son of a king in Banaras, became an ascetic at 30, lived to 100, died in
Bihar ~250 years before Mahavira.
○ the real founder of Jainism was its 24th Tirthankara Mahavira.
○ According to one tradition, Vardhaman Mahavira was born in 540 BC in a village
near Vaishali.
○ Being the son of the head of a Kshatriya clan, he also had connections with the
royal family of Magadha.
○ Mahavira led the life of a householder but in his quest for truth, he abandoned
the world at the age of 30 and became an ascetic. After wandering from place to
place for 12 years, he attained omniscience (Kaivalya) through which he
conquered misery and happiness.
○ Because of this conquest, he is known as Mahavira or the great hero or Jina that
is the conqueror and his followers are known as Jainas. He propagated his
religion for thirty years and his mission took him to Koshala, Magadha, Mithila,
Champa
○ Religious texts written in Pali do not recognize Mahavira as an originator of a
new religion but as a reformer of an existing religion.
3. Mahavira’s Religious Teachings
● Did not found a new religion but reformed Parsva’s doctrines.
● Parsva preached 4 vows:
1. Ahimsa – non-violence
2. Satya – truth
3. Asteya – non-stealing
4. Aparigraha – non-possession
● Mahavira added the 5th vow: 5. Brahmacharya – celibacy
4. Jain Philosophy
● Atheistic: Does not believe in a creator God.
● Influenced by Hindu Samkhya philosophy but focuses on soul purification through
asceticism.
● Dualism: Belief in two eternal substances:
○ Jiva (soul): eternal and conscious
○ Ajiva (matter): non-conscious and destructible
○ While Ajiva is destructible, Jiva is indestructible and the salvation of an
individual is possible through progress of Jiva.
○ In short, the living and non-living (soul and matter) by coming into contact with
each other create energies which cause birth, death and various experiences of
life.
○ The central doctrine to Jainism is that all of nature is alive-everything from rocks
○ to the minute. insects have some form of a soul, called jiva.
○ Jainism thus"spiritualises even the material". The souls have always been in
existence in an eternal cosmic pool of souls and were not created by any divine
force.
○ Soul and matter interact to produce karma, which binds the soul to rebirth.
● Liberation involves eliminating karma through discipline.
● This primarily results in the belief ande establishment of: Seven Tattvas (Truths)
of Jainism
1. Jiva – Living beings (soul)
2. Ajiva – Non-living matter
3. Asrava – Influx of karmic matter
4. Bandha – Bondage of soul with karma
5. Samvara – Stopping of karma influx
6. Nirjara – Destruction of existing karma
7. Moksha – Liberation or salvation
These can be simply explained as:
1. There is something called the living.
2. There is something called the non-living.
3. The two come in contact with each other.
4. The contact leads to production of energies.
5. The process of contact could be stopped.
6. The existing energies could be exhausted.
7. Salvation could be achieved.
● On the basis of these propositions, Jaina philosophy states that if one desires to attain
Nirvana, it is important for him to destroy Karma. One could gradually do it by avoiding
evil Karma first and later other Karma. To equip himself for such a task a person should
observe the five principles of the religion.
● Jainism is essentially atheistic, the concept of God being irrelevant. But it accepts a
group of prophets or Tirthankaras who were deified men. Every mortal possesses the
potentiality of becoming as great as they were.
● According to it,the sole purpose of life is the purification of soul.
● Unlike the Upanishad, Jainism preaches that the purification of soul cannot be attained
through knowledge but only through rigorous ascetic punishment of the body thereby
freeing the soul from the sorrows of life.
● In other words, right belief, right knowledge and right action or ratnatreya or three
jewels of Jain religion formed the basis of man’s life.
● Jainism believed that the highest state of a soul was God. According to Mahavira man is
the architect of his own destiny and he could attain salvation and even the status of a
God by pursuing a life of purity, virtue and renunciation.
● THEREFORE, CENTRAL DOCTRINE: One might almost sum up the central doctrine of
Jainism in one phrase that many injuring no living creature reaches the Nirvana which is
Eternal peace. That is the phrase that seems to carry with it .the whole thought of Jain
is: Peace - peace between man and man, peace between man and animal, peace
everywhere and in all things, a perfect brotherhood of all That lives
●
● No lay jaina could take up the profession of agriculture since this involved not only the
destruction of plant life but also of many living things in the soil. That is why strict
limitation of private property enforced by Jainism was interpreted to mean only landed
property.
● As important as the concept ofjiva is that of "non-violence" - ahimsa. According to
Mahavira's "pure unchanging eternal law all things breathing, all things living, all things
existing, all beings whatever they are, should not be slain, or treated with violence, or
insulted, or tortured, or driven away".
● There was no restriction on amassing wealth by means of trade and commerce. The
practice of non-violence in Jainism had more of negativity since it lays greater emphasis
on vegetarianism and precaution against killing of insects and animals rather than on
loving them.
● But self mortification and rigorous ascetism were recommended as a means of achieving
liberation surmounting all passions and earthly ties where being dissolves into the
impersonal universal whole. When this state is achieved the cycle of rebirth ends.
●
5. Sects of Jainism
● Two major sects emerged:
1. Svetambaras: White-clad monks, accept women's salvation, accept 12 Angas.
2. Digambaras: Nude monks, deny women can attain liberation, reject 12 Angas.
● There are differences between the two sects regarding versions of some incidents of the
life of Mahavira, the type of food taken by Jaina preacher or munis, and the question
whether women could attain Nirvana or not.
● Jain sacred texts known as 12 Angas were also non-acceptable to Digambaras as
authentic. The original doctrines taught by Mahavira were contained in 14 old texts
known as ‘purvas’.
● Among the 12 angas the Acharayanga Sutta and the Bhagwati Sutta are the most
important. While the former deals with the code of conduct which a Jaina monk is
required to follow, the later expound the Jaina doctrines in a comprehensive manner.
● Jain scriptures originally in Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi).
● In the process of growth of Jainism over centuries the main sects of this religion have
also been divided into various sub-sects (gaccha. In the 16th century
● "Sthankmasis" a sub-set of the Svetambaras emerged in western India. This sect rejected
the practice of image worship of Jina.
● In the 16th century - sub sect of the Digambara known as- Taranapantha as organised
which also denied the sanctity of idol worship in Jainism.
● The most important of these sects of Svetambara are the ~Khasatara, 'tapa and Anchala
gacchas.
● Some important Digambara sub-sects are Nandi, ~Kasthha, Dravida and Sena,
20.4.1 Growth of Jainism
📍 Early Spread
● Initially spread in eastern India: Kingdoms of Videha, Magadha, Anga, and Kasi
(Varanasi).
● Expanded westwards to Kosala, Dasapura (Mandasor), Ujjain, and even Nepal and
parts of South India.
📍 Royal Patronage
● 2nd century B.C.: King of Kalinga (modern Orissa) adopted Jainism and promoted it
through Jain caves, images, and memorials.
● King Samprati, grandson of Ashoka, was a strong supporter of Jainism, particularly in
the South. such patronage facilitated the spread of Jainism in South India.
📍 Influence in Tamil Nadu
● Jainism significantly influenced Tamil literature, as seen in classics like:
○ Manimekalai
○ Silappatikaram
📍 Growth under Dynasties
● From 5th to 12th century, South Indian dynasties like the:
○ Ganga
○ Kadamba
○ Chalukya
○ Rashtrakuta actively patronized Jainism.
📍 Jainism During and After the Gupta Period
● Gupta Period (AD 320–600): Jainism became stronger in Central and Western India.
● Post-7th century: Svetambara sect gained prominence in Gujarat and Rajasthan due
to continued royal support.
● Around 1100 AD, Jainism flourished under the Caulukyas of Gujarat, and it continues
to be significant in those regions.
20.4.3 Jain Scriptures
📍 Oral Tradition and Early Preservation
● Jain scriptures were preserved orally from Mahavira’s time.
● Systematization efforts began through Jain councils from time to time.
📍 Major Jain Councils
1. First Council – Pataliputra (4th century BC)
2. Second & Third Councils – Mathura & Valabhi (early 3rd century BC)
3. Fourth Council – Valabhi (454 or 467 AD): Led to the sourcing of the Svetambara
canon.
📍 Svetambara Canon
● Known as Agamas (total: 45 texts):
○ 11 Angas (originally 12, one lost)
○ 12 Upangas
○ 4 Mula Sutras
○ 6 Cheda Sutras
○ 2 Mulasutra
○ 10 Prakirnakas (miscellaneous texts)
📍 Digambara Perspective
● Believe the original canon is lost.
● Rely on later Prakrit texts:
1. Karmaprabhrta – on karma (by Puspandanta and Bhutabali)
2. Kasayaprabhrta – on passions (by Gunadhara)
● Respect other works by ancient Jain scholars in prakrit.
RELIGIOUS PRACTICES OF THE JAINS
Religion Among the Jains
1. Religious Influences:
○ Jain religious practices are shaped by Jain convictions and the surrounding
Hindu social environment.
2. Four-fold Jain Community (Sangha): Jains should be members of four-fold
congregation (sangha)- Comprises monks, nuns, laymen (Shravaka), and laywomen
(Shravika).
3. Core Beliefs:
○ Deep faith in Triratna: Right faith, right knowledge, right conduct — the path to
liberation (moksha).
○ strict adherence to triratna will bring liberation from bondage for them.
4. Role of Laypeople:
○ Though liberation is ideally for ascetics, householders are allowed to perform
ceremonies and idol worship, adapting from Hindu rituals.
○ Cultic practices (lamps, flowers, fruit offerings) are tolerated despite potential
violence, due to their devotional role. being considered ultimately to the
worshipper's progress.
5. Vows and Practices to be taken by monks and laymen
The Jains four fold congregation can be brought under two great bodies; the
laymen/women (Shrravaka) and the ascetic (Yati).
○ Monks/nuns: Vows include non-violence and avoidance of food/drink at
night.
○ Laypeople: Vows include truthfulness, non-violence, charity, and practicing
self-restraint.
○ The monks and the nuns pledge to abstain from (a) injuring life (b) taking food
and drink at night (since it may lead to injury to insects which might go
unnoticed in the darkness.
○
6. Householder Duties:
○ Regular meditation, fasting (especially on the 8th and 14th lunar days),
confession of faults, and self-reflection.
○ Strict abstinence from intoxicants like alcohol, bhang, and opium.
○ Avoidance of foods involving harm to life, like honey and butter.
○ These householders also perform some obligatory duties following the examples
of life style of the monks:
○ i) cultivate right state of mind
○ ii) regularly practice meditation
○ iii) observe fasts on the eighth and fourteen days of the moon's waxing and
waning
○
7. Daily Routine for Laypeople:
○ Early rising, mantra chanting, and introspection on self, faith, and duties.
○ He must rise very early in the morning and then he must repeat silently his
mantras, counting its repetition in the fingers; and then he has to say to himself,
what I am, who is my Ishtadevata and who is my Gurudeva, what is my religion,
what should I do, what should I not do?
○
🔹 20.5.2 The Jain Way of Life
1. Community Overview:
○ Jains are a small yet influential community, mainly involved in trade and
business.
○ Majority belong to the Vaishya varna; often intermarry and dine with Hindu
Vaishyas. They usually do not regard themselves as of different religions.
○
2. Family and Social Life:
○ Similar to Hindu joint family system.
○ Practice monogamy and follow a defined moral code.
3. Values and Upbringing:
○ Children are raised to be thoughtful, calm, and disciplined.
○ Emphasis on self-control and mindfulness.
○ From childhood, a child is taught to check thoughtlessness, continual
carelessness and excitement which are the great banes of human life.
4. Ascetic Lifestyle:
○ Men and women ascetics (especially in the Svetambara sect) lead strict lives of
begging, fasting, and detachment.
○ They must beg for enough food to support the body, because only in the human
body can one gain liberation.
○ They are to attach prime importance to the teachings of the Guru. Hence -they
must not renounce the Guru, because without his teaching progress will be
impossible.
○ Importance of body, guru, discipline, and study for spiritual progress.
○ The female ascetics are also to follow the same strict rule of conduct. It is the
duty of the female ascetics to see that Jain women, wives and daughters are
properly educated.
○
○ No female ascetics in the Digambara sect.
5. Voluntary Death (Sallekhana):
○ Ascetics may embrace death by voluntary fasting when further spiritual
progress is no longer possible.
🔹 20.5.3 Jain Festivals
1. Major Celebrations:
○ Mark five key life events of Jain Tirthankaras:
i) Conception
ii) Birth
iii) Renunciation
iv) Omniscience
v) Liberation (nirvana)
Major festival of jains are related to the auspicious occasions of the life of great masters of
[Link] occasions are
(i) descent in the mothers womb (garbhadharana, cyavana)
(ii) birth (Janma)
(iii) enunciation (diksa) and
(iv)attainment of omniscience (Kevalajnana) and
(v) death and final emancipation of Jina.
2. Important Festivals:
○ Paryushana: Celebrated in Bhadrapada (Aug–Sep) with confessions,
forgiveness, charity, and a procession of Mahavira’s image.
○ Oli: Fasting observed twice a year, nine days each in Caitra (Mar–Apr) and
Ashwin (Sep–Oct).
○ Diwali: Celebrates Mahavira’s nirvana with lighting of lamps.
○ Gyana Panchami: Celebrated 5 days after Diwali, focused on worship of
scriptures.
○ Mahavir Jayanti: Birth of Mahavira, celebrated on full moon of Caitra.
3. Shared Celebrations with Hindus:
○ Jains also observe Hindu festivals like Holi, Makar Sankranti, Navaratri,
Pongal, Kartika, and Yugadi.
4. Worship Practices:
○ Includes idol worship, chanting, rituals, and temple activities.
○ Svetambaras: Dress idols in clothes and ornaments.
○ Digambaras: Emphasize mental worship over physical rituals.
Hinduism and jainism
🔸 Philosophical and Spiritual Similarities
1. Belief in Karma
○ Both religions believe in the law of karma, which means every action (good or
bad) has consequences.
2. Rebirth and Transmigration of Soul
○ Both hold that the soul (atman/jiva) is eternal and goes through cycles of birth
and death until it attains liberation (moksha/nirvana).
3. Moksha (Liberation)
○ The ultimate goal in both is liberation from the cycle of rebirths, leading to
eternal bliss and freedom.
4. Asceticism and Renunciation
○ Emphasis on renunciation, self-discipline, and control over desires as a
means to attain spiritual growth.
5. Concept of Dharma
○ Though defined differently, both emphasize following one’s dharma (duty/right
conduct) as part of ethical and spiritual life.
6. Meditation and Yoga
○ Both traditions encourage meditation, self-reflection, and yogic practices for
spiritual progress
Mythological and Cultural Similarities
1. Belief in Tirthas and Pilgrimage
○ Pilgrimage to sacred places is important in both traditions (e.g., Mount Abu,
Shravanabelagola, and Varanasi).
2. Reverence for Saints and Sages
○ Respect for spiritually enlightened beings like Jain Tirthankaras and Hindu
rishis/avatars.
3. Use of Symbols and Rituals
○ Both use symbols like swastika, lotus, and kalasha, and perform rituals
involving puja, mantras, and offerings.
4. Vegetarianism
○ Non-violence (ahimsa) is valued, promoting vegetarian diets in both Jain and
Hindu communities.
Scriptural and Linguistic Similarities
1. Use of Sanskrit and Prakrit
○ Both use ancient Indian languages for scriptures and teachings—Jainism uses
Prakrit, while Hinduism uses Sanskrit.
2. Concept of Eternal Universe
○ Both believe in a cyclical concept of time—the universe undergoes endless
cycles of creation and destruction.
3. Common Cultural Heritage
○ Shared roots in ancient Indian civilization, festivals, and societal structures
(like the ashrama system, though adapted differently).
🛕 1. Origins and Founders
Jainism Hinduism
Founded by Mahavira (24th Tirthankara) in the No single founder; evolved over
6th century BCE (though Jain tradition claims thousands of years as a collection of
much older origins) beliefs and practices
📜 2. Scriptures
Jainism Hinduism
Agamas (for Svetambaras), works like Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, Bhagavad
Karmaprakriti and Kasayaprabhrta for Gita, Ramayana, Mahabharata
Digambaras
🧘 3. Belief in God
Jainism Hinduism
Non-theistic: Does not believe in a creator Theistic: Believes in a supreme being
god. Focus is on self-effort and spiritual (Brahman) and many deities (Shiva, Vishnu,
discipline Devi, etc.)
♻️ 4. Concept of Karma and Liberation
Jainism Hinduism
Karma is a material substance that sticks to Karma is more metaphysical – actions have
the soul due to passions and actions consequences that affect rebirth
Liberation (moksha) is achieved through Moksha is achieved through bhakti
self-purification, non-violence, and (devotion), karma (action), or jnana
asceticism (knowledge)
🚫 5. Non-Violence (Ahimsa)
Jainism Hinduism
Strictest form of non-violence; even root Ahimsa is important but not as absolute;
vegetables and honey are avoided to prevent violence is permitted in specific cases
harm to living beings (e.g., warrior duty)
🧘♀️ 6. Role of Asceticism
Jainism Hinduism
Highly ascetic; ascetics renounce all possessions, Asceticism is one path among
practice extreme fasting and sometimes many; not all Hindus are required
self-starvation (Sallekhana) to be ascetic
🧎 7. Idol Worship and Rituals
Jainism Hinduism
Worships Tirthankaras (liberated souls), not Worship of gods and goddesses
gods; some sects like Sthanakvasis and through elaborate rituals, pujas,
Taranpanthis reject idol worship and offerings is central
🧑🎓 8. Caste System
Jainism Hinduism
Rejects caste discrimination in spiritual matters; Deeply integrated with the caste
however, Vaishya caste dominance is visible in system, especially in orthodox
practice traditions
🪔 9. Festivals
Jainism Hinduism
Celebrates events from Tirthankaras’ lives Celebrates divine events and deities (e.g.,
(e.g., Mahavir Jayanti, Paryushana) Diwali, Navaratri, Holi, Shivaratri)
🚹 10. Role of Women
Jainism Hinduism
Svetambaras allow female monks; Women can attain moksha; roles vary by
Digambaras believe women can't attain sect but are generally more inclusive in
moksha directly modern times
🛤️ 11. Path to Salvation
Jainism Hinduism
Focus on self-effort, Multiple paths: Bhakti (devotion), Karma (duty),
non-violence, right conduct Jnana (knowledge), Raja Yoga