Module 10 Information

Processing

INTRODUCTION

Information Processing Theory is a cognitive psychology theory that studies mental processes involved in
acquiring, storing, and using knowledge. It focuses on the flow of information as it is passed from one
stage to another within a person’s mind.

According to this theory, the human mind is seen as an information processor similar to that of a computer.
This model suggests that events comprise individual pieces of information that are processed in stages
such as encoding, storage, and retrieval.

The process of acquiring knowledge begins with the sensory register, which holds information for a very
brief period of time. This information is then transferred to short-term memory, where it is held for a longer
period of time. If the information is deemed important, it is then transferred to long-term memory, where
it can be retrieved at a later time.

The process of retrieving information from long-term memory is influenced by a number of factors,
including the strength of the memory trace, the context in which the information was learned, and the cues
that are available to help retrieve the information.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, the students will be able to attain the following learning outcomes:
1. Describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing, and retrieving knowledge.
2. Cite educational implications of the theory on information processing.

ABSTRACTION

Information Processing - is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge enters
and is stored in and is retrieved in our memory. It is one of the most significant cognitive theories in the
last century and it has strong implications on the teaching – learning process.
 Information Processing Theory

Executive Control
Types of Knowledge Stages Processes

General or Specific Encoding

Declarative Storage

Procedural Retrieval

Episodic

Conditional

Information Processing Theory

- Relating how the mind and computer work is a powerful analogy. The terms used in the
information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact, those who program and
design computers aim to make computers solve problems through processes similar to that
of the human mind. Read on to know more about IPT.
- Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is
learned. They considered learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior
change (as behaviorist theorists thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store
and retrieve information. They believe that how a person thinks about and interprets what
s/he receives shape what he or she will learn. All these notions comprise what is called the
information processing theory.
- IPT describes how the learners receives information (stimuli) from the environment
through the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information
will continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short – term memory and the
 long – term memory. Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be
retrieved or "remembered" when the learner needs it. Let us go into the details.

“Types” of Knowledge
 General vs Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or
only in one.
 Declarative: This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things
are. They may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address,
and nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush.
 Procedural: This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making a
lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator.
 Episodic: This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.
 Conditional: This is about "knowing when and why" to apply declarative or procedural
strategies.

Stages in the Information Processing Theory

- The stages of IPT involved the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-term
memory and the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the
progression of external information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive
structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.).

These three primary stages are:

o Encoding – Information is sensed perceived and attended to.
o Storage – The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the processes following encoding.
o Retrieval – The information is brought back at the appropriate time and
reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.
- What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could be described in a
stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken
into the memory system, and got back (recalled) when needed. Most theories of
information processing revolve around the three main stages in the memory process.

Atkinson – Shiffrin Model of Memory

- In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed a model of human memory which is posited two
distinct memory stores: short – term memory and long – term memory.
- Later, a third memory store but first in sequence was added: sensory memory.
 - R. Atkinson and R. Shiffrin (1968) proposed that our memories are not just stored in one
place but actually memory consists of several “stores”.
- Memory is made up of a series of parts, working together as a process.

Sensory Register
The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very brief time.

 Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what
our minds can hold or perceive.
 Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief
period – in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.
 There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more
persistent than visual.
 Information enters the human information processing system via a variety of channels
associated with the different senses.
- Sensory Memory for vision is called Iconic Memory.
- Sensory Memory for audition/hearing is called Echoic Memory.
- Sensory Memory for touch is called Haptic Memory.

The Role of Attention

 To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give attention to it.
Such that, we can only perceive and remember later those things that pass through
our attention "gate".
 Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in the
material; when there is conscious control over attention, or when the information
involves novelty, surprise, science, and distinctiveness.
 Before information is perceived, it is known as pre – categorical information. This
means that until that point, the learners has established a determination of the
categorical membership of the information. To this point, the information is coming in
as uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once it is perceived, we can categorize, judge,
interpret and place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to perceive, we have no means
by which to recognize that the stimulus was ever encountered.

Short Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

 Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 "chunks" information, sometimes described
as 7 +/- 2. It is called working memory because it is where new information is
temporarily placed while it is mentally processed. STM contains information for a
 limited time, until the learner has adequate resources to process the information, or
until the information is forgotten.
 Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.
 Processing: Auditory encoding (visuals are transferred into sounds)
 To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance
rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the information active in STM, like when you
repeat the phone number just given over and over.
 The low capacity of STM was first noted by George Miller in a famous paper entitled
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two.
 Miller concluded that about seven (plus or minus two) “chunks” of information could
reside in STM simultaneously.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds the
stored information until needed again.
 Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.
 Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite.
 Processing: Information is organized according to meaning and is associatively
linked.
 Encoding: Sematic, Visual, Encoding

Executive Control Processes

- The executive control processes involve the executive processor or what is referred to
as metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system,
help the learner make informed decisions about how to categorized, organized or interpret
information. Example of processes are attention, rehearsals and organization.

Forgetting
Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information we needed.
There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:
 Decay – Information is not attended and eventually "fades away". Very prevalent
in Working Memory
 Interference – New or old information "blocks" access to the information in
question.

Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information

  Rehearsal – This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
 Meaningful Learning – This is making connection between new information and prior
knowledge.
 Organization – It is making connections among various pieces of information. Info that
is organized efficiently should be recalled.
 Elaboration – This is adding ideas to new information based on what one already knows.
It is connecting new information with old to gain meaning.
 Visual Imagery – This means forming a "picture" of the information.
 Generation – Things we “produce” are easier to remember than things we “hear”.
 Context – Remembering the situation helps recover information.
 Personalization – It is making the information relevant to the individual.

Other Memory Methods

 Serial Position Effect (recency or primacy) – You will remember the beginning and
end of a "list" more readily.
 Part Learning – Break up the "list" or "chunk" of information to increase memorization.
 Distributed Practice – Break up the learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info
in at once (Massed Practice).
 Mnemonic Aids – these are memory techniques that learners may employ to help them
retain and retrieve information more effectively. This includes the loci techniques,
acronyms, sentence construction, peg – word and association techniques, among others.

The Information Processing Model

Executive Control Processes (including Metacognition)

Rehearsal, Elaboration,
Maintenance Rehearsal Meaningful Learning,
Organization, Visual
Imagery, Generalization

Sensory Short Term Long Term

Senses Perception
Memory Memory Memory
y

decay Sensory Forgetting Retrieval

Memory
y
Information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory for a very
brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the STM and if
given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the LTM. If not properly
encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes applied to the information will then
determine if information can be retrieved when needed later.

Implications of Information Processing in the Classroom

Principle Examples
1. Gain the students' attention.
- Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.
- Move around the room and use voice inflections.
2. Bring to mind relevant prior learning.
- Review previous day's lesson.
- Have a discussion about previously covered content.
3. Point out important information
- Provide handouts.
- Write on the board or use transparencies
4. Present information in an organized manner
- Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.
- Go from simple to complex when
5. Show students how to use coding when memorizing lists
- Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method
- Make up silly sentence with first letter of each word in the list.
6. Show students how to categorize (chunk) related information
- Present information in categories.
- Teach inductive reasoning
7. Provide for repetition of learning.
- State important principles several times in different ways during presentation of
information (STM).
- Have items on each day's lesson from previous lesson (LTM).
- Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills (LTM).