CLASS XII MATHEMATICS

Complete Study Notes

Chapters Covered:
✦ Matrices ✦ Determinants ✦ Continuity & Differentiability
(First 3 Exercises of Each Chapter)

NCERT Class 12 | Board Exam Preparation

Includes: Key Concepts • Formulas • Important Questions • PYQs
■ STUDY TIMETABLE FOR TODAY

Your Free Slots:

Slot Time Duration Topic to Cover Target

Slot 1 11:30 AM – 1:10 PM 1 hr 40 min Matrices – Concepts + Ex 3.1 & 3.2 Types, Operations, Multiplication

Slot 2 3:00 PM – 4:00 PM 1 hr Matrices Ex 3.3 + Determinants Ex 4.1Transpose, Symmetric, Basic Det.

Slot 3 5:00 PM – 6:00 PM 1 hr Determinants Ex 4.2 & 4.3 Properties, Area of Triangle

Slot 3 6:00 PM – 7:00 PM 1 hr Continuity & Differentiability Ex 5.1 & 5.2Continuity Rules, Differentiability

Slot 3 7:00 PM – 7:30 PM 30 min C&D Ex 5.3 + Quick Revision Chain Rule, Implicit Diff.

■ Note: Take 10-min breaks between slots. Drink water. Revise quickly using this sheet before sleep!
 CHAPTER 1: MATRICES

(Exercises 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 – NCERT Class 12)

EXERCISE 3.1 — Order of Matrix & Types

KEY KEYWORDS: Matrix, Order, Row, Column, Element, Transpose

1. MATRIX — Definition
A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers (or functions) enclosed in square brackets,
arranged in rows and columns.
A matrix with m rows and n columns has ORDER m × n (read as 'm by n')
If A is of order m × n, it has m × n elements total.
■ Note: The element in i-th row and j-th column is written as a_ij. For example: a_23 means element in
2nd row, 3rd column.

2. TYPES OF MATRICES
Type Condition Example
Row Matrix Only 1 row (1 × n) [1 2 3]
[1]
Column Matrix Only 1 column (m × 1) [2]
[3]
Square Matrix Rows = Columns (n × n) [[1,2],[3,4]] order 2×2
Diagonal Matrix Square; non-diagonal elements = 0 [[5,0],[0,3]]
Scalar Matrix Diagonal; all diagonal elements equal [[k,0],[0,k]]
Identity Matrix (I) Diagonal; all diagonal elements = 1 [[1,0],[0,1]]
Zero Matrix (O) All elements = 0 [[0,0],[0,0]]
Upper Triangular a_ij = 0 for i > j Elements below diagonal are 0
Lower Triangular a_ij = 0 for i < j Elements above diagonal are 0

★ Identity Matrix is the multiplicative identity: AI = IA = A

★ Zero Matrix is the additive identity: A + O = A
■ Note: Two matrices are EQUAL only if they have the same order AND each corresponding element
is equal.

3. EQUALITY OF MATRICES
A = B if and only if: (i) Order of A = Order of B, and (ii) a_ij = b_ij for all i, j.
[PYQ] Find x, y, z if [[x+y, 2],[5+z, xy]] = [[6, 2],[5, 8]] → x+y=6, xy=8 → x=4,y=2 or x=2,y=4; z=0

EXERCISE 3.2 — Matrix Operations (Addition, Scalar Mult., Multiplication)

KEY KEYWORDS: Addition, Scalar Multiplication, Matrix Product, Conformability
4. ADDITION OF MATRICES
Two matrices can be added ONLY if they have the same order. Add element-by-element.
If A = [a_ij] and B = [b_ij], then A + B = [a_ij + b_ij]

Properties of Matrix Addition:

• Commutative: A + B = B + A
• Associative: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
• Additive Identity: A + O = O + A = A
• Additive Inverse: A + (−A) = O [where −A = [−a_ij]]

5. SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
k · A = [k · a_ij] → Multiply every element by scalar k
• k(A + B) = kA + kB
• (k + l)A = kA + lA
• (kl)A = k(lA)

6. MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
AB is defined ONLY if number of columns of A = number of rows of B.
If A is m×n and B is n×p, then AB is m×p
(AB)_ij = Sum of (a_ik × b_kj) for k = 1 to n
■ Note: To find element in row i, column j of AB: multiply row i of A with column j of B, add the products.

Properties of Matrix Multiplication:

• NOT commutative: AB ≠ BA (in general)
• Associative: (AB)C = A(BC)
• Distributive: A(B + C) = AB + AC and (A + B)C = AC + BC
• Identity: AI = IA = A
• Zero: AO = OA = O
★ AB = O does NOT necessarily mean A = O or B = O
★ AB = AC does NOT necessarily mean B = C (cancellation law does NOT hold)

[PYQ] If A = [[1,2],[3,4]] and B = [[5,6],[7,8]], find AB. [NCERT Example]

AB = [[1×5+2×7, 1×6+2×8],[3×5+4×7, 3×6+4×8]] = [[19, 22],[43, 50]]

EXERCISE 3.3 — Transpose, Symmetric & Skew-Symmetric Matrices

KEY KEYWORDS: Transpose, Symmetric, Skew-Symmetric, Elementary Operations

7. TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
The transpose of matrix A (denoted A' or A^T) is obtained by interchanging rows and columns.
If A = [a_ij] of order m×n, then A' = [a_ji] of order n×m
■ Note: The element in (i,j) position of A goes to (j,i) position in A'.
Properties of Transpose:
• (A')' = A
• (A + B)' = A' + B'
• (kA)' = kA'
• (AB)' = B'A' ← VERY IMPORTANT — order reverses!
★ (ABC)' = C'B'A' (Reversal Law)

8. SYMMETRIC MATRIX
A is symmetric if A' = A i.e., a_ij = a_ji for all i, j
Diagonal elements can be anything; off-diagonal elements are mirror images across the diagonal.
■ Note: Example: [[1,2,3],[2,5,4],[3,4,6]] — check a_12=a_21=2, a_13=a_31=3, a_23=a_32=4 ✓

9. SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX
A is skew-symmetric if A' = −A i.e., a_ij = −a_ji for all i, j
★ All diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are ZERO (since a_ii = −a_ii → 2a_ii=0
→ a_ii=0)
■ Note: Example: [[0,2,−3],[−2,0,4],[3,−4,0]]

10. IMPORTANT THEOREM (BOARD EXAM FAVOURITE)

Any square matrix can be expressed as sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix:
A = (1/2)(A + A') + (1/2)(A − A')
Where P = (1/2)(A + A') is symmetric and Q = (1/2)(A − A') is skew-symmetric
★ PROOF: P' = (1/2)(A + A')' = (1/2)(A'' + A') = (1/2)(A + A') = P → P is symmetric
★ Q' = (1/2)(A − A')' = (1/2)(A'' − A') = (1/2)(A − A') = −Q → Q is skew-symmetric

[PYQ] Express A = [[6, −2, 2],[−2, 3, −1],[2, −1, 3]] as sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric.
[NCERT Ex 3.3 Q10]
Since A is already symmetric (check A' = A), the skew-symmetric part is O. So A = A + O.
CHAPTER 2: DETERMINANTS

(Exercises 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 – NCERT Class 12)

EXERCISE 4.1 — Value of Determinant

KEY KEYWORDS: Determinant, Minor, Cofactor, Singular, Non-singular

11. DETERMINANT — Definition

Every square matrix A has a number (real or complex) associated with it called its determinant,
denoted |A| or det(A).

For 1×1 matrix A = [a]: |A| = a

For 2×2 matrix:

|A| = |a b| = a·d − b·c (Subtract: top-left × bottom-right − top-right × bottom-left)
|c d|
[PYQ] Find |2 4| = 2×6 − 4×5 = 12 − 20 = −8 [Very common type]
|5 6|

For 3×3 matrix (Expanding along Row 1):

|a1 b1 c1|
|a2 b2 c2| = a1(b2·c3 − b3·c2) − b1(a2·c3 − a3·c2) + c1(a2·b3 − a3·b2)
|a3 b3 c3|
■ Note: Signs for cofactor expansion along Row 1: + − + (alternating signs starting with +)
★ You can expand along ANY row or column. Choose the one with most zeros for easy
calculation.

12. MINOR AND COFACTOR

Minor (M_ij): Determinant of the matrix obtained by deleting row i and column j.
Cofactor (A_ij): A_ij = (−1)^(i+j) × M_ij
Sign pattern: + − +
−+−
+−+
■ Note: Cofactor = Minor × sign, where sign = (−1)^(i+j)

13. SINGULAR AND NON-SINGULAR MATRICES

• Singular Matrix: |A| = 0 (no inverse exists)
• Non-singular Matrix: |A| ≠ 0 (inverse exists)
★ A matrix has an inverse if and only if it is non-singular.
 EXERCISE 4.2 — Properties of Determinants
KEY KEYWORDS: Row/Column Operations, Identical Rows, Triangular Matrix

14. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS (Board Exam Goldmine!)

# Property Statement
P1 Reflection det(A) = det(A') — Rows and columns are interchangeable
P2 Zero Row/Col If any row (or column) is all zeros → det = 0
P3 Interchange Interchanging two rows/columns changes the sign of the determinant
P4 Identical Rows If two rows (or columns) are identical → det = 0
P5 Scalar Multiple Multiplying a row/column by k multiplies det by k
P6 Sum Property det can be split if elements of one row are sums
P7 Row Operations R_i → R_i + k·R_j does NOT change the determinant
P8 Triangular det of triangular matrix = product of diagonal elements

★ KEY TRICK: If rows/columns are proportional (one = k × other) → det = 0

★ If matrix has 2 identical rows or columns → det = 0
■ Note: Most 'evaluate determinant' problems use Properties P4 and P7: make two rows/columns
identical by row operations.

STANDARD APPROACH TO EVALUATE 3×3 DETERMINANTS:

• Step 1: Apply row/column operations (R_i → R_i ± k·R_j) to create zeros
• Step 2: Expand along the row/column with most zeros
• Step 3: Calculate the resulting 2×2 determinants

[PYQ] Prove: |1+a 1 1|

[PYQ] | 1 1+b 1| = abc + ab + bc + ca [NCERT Ex 4.2, Frequently asked]
[PYQ] | 1 1 1+c|
Hint: Apply C1→C1−C3, C2→C2−C3, then expand. OR take out a,b,c from rows and factor.

EXERCISE 4.3 — Area of Triangle, Adjoint & Inverse of Matrix

KEY KEYWORDS: Area, Collinear, Adjoint, Inverse, Cramer's Rule

15. AREA OF TRIANGLE USING DETERMINANT

Area = (1/2) × |x1(y2−y3) + x2(y3−y1) + x3(y1−y2)|
= (1/2) × |x1 y1 1|
|x2 y2 1|
|x3 y3 1|
■ Note: Area is always positive, so take the absolute value of the determinant result.
★ If Area = 0, then the three points are COLLINEAR.

[PYQ] Find the area of triangle with vertices (3,8), (−4,2), (5,1) [NCERT, Board 2019]
Area = (1/2)|3(2−1) + (−4)(1−8) + 5(8−2)| = (1/2)|3+28+30| = (1/2)(61) = 30.5 sq units
16. ADJOINT (Adj A) OF A MATRIX
Adjoint of A is the transpose of the cofactor matrix of A.
Adj(A) = [A_ij]^T where A_ij are cofactors
For 2×2 matrix A = [[a,b],[c,d]]:
Adj(A) = [[d, −b],[−c, a]] (swap diagonal, negate off-diagonal)
★ A · Adj(A) = Adj(A) · A = |A| · I (Very important identity)

17. INVERSE OF A MATRIX

A^(−1) = (1/|A|) × Adj(A) [only if |A| ≠ 0]

Steps to find inverse:

• Step 1: Calculate |A|. If |A| = 0, inverse does not exist.
• Step 2: Find all cofactors A_ij.
• Step 3: Write cofactor matrix [A_ij].
• Step 4: Transpose it to get Adj(A).
• Step 5: Divide by |A|: A^(−1) = Adj(A)/|A|

★ A·A^(−1) = A^(−1)·A = I
★ (A^(−1))^(−1) = A
★ (AB)^(−1) = B^(−1) · A^(−1) (Reversal law for inverse)
★ |A^(−1)| = 1/|A| = |A|^(−1)

18. SOLVING SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS (Matrix Method)

System AX = B → X = A^(−1) B (if |A| ≠ 0, unique solution)
If |A| = 0: check Adj(A)·B = O → infinite solutions; else no solution.
[PYQ] Solve: x+y+z=6, 2y+5z=−4, 2x+5y−z=27 using matrix method. [Board 2020, 6 marks]
CHAPTER 3: CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

(Exercises 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 – NCERT Class 12)

EXERCISE 5.1 — Continuity of Functions

KEY KEYWORDS: Continuous, Left-hand Limit, Right-hand Limit, Discontinuity

19. CONTINUITY — Definition

A function f is continuous at x = a if all three conditions hold:
• (i) f(a) is defined (function has a value at a)
• (ii) lim f(x) as x→a exists (left-hand limit = right-hand limit)
• (iii) lim f(x) as x→a = f(a) (limit equals the function value)
Continuity at x = a: LHL = RHL = f(a)
LHL = lim f(a−h) as h→0■ RHL = lim f(a+h) as h→0■
■ Note: If the function is given as piecewise (different formulas for different ranges), ALWAYS check
continuity at the boundary point.

20. TYPES OF DISCONTINUITY

• Removable: lim exists but ≠ f(a), or f(a) not defined
• Jump: LHL ≠ RHL
• Infinite: limit is ±∞

21. ALGEBRA OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

If f and g are continuous at x = a, then:
• f + g is continuous at a
• f − g is continuous at a
• f · g is continuous at a
• f/g is continuous at a (provided g(a) ≠ 0)
★ Every polynomial is continuous everywhere on R.
★ Every rational function p(x)/q(x) is continuous wherever q(x) ≠ 0.
★ sin x, cos x are continuous everywhere. tan x is continuous except at x = (2n+1)π/2.

[PYQ] Find all points of discontinuity of f where f(x) = x/|x| if x≠0, and 0 if x=0.
LHL at 0 = lim (x/|x|) = lim(−x/x) = −1. RHL = +1. LHL ≠ RHL → discontinuous at x=0.

[PYQ] Find k if f(x) = kx+1 for x≤5, and 3x−5 for x>5 is continuous at x=5. [NCERT + Board
2018]
At x=5: LHL = 5k+1, RHL = 3(5)−5 = 10, f(5) = 5k+1
For continuity: 5k+1 = 10 → k = 9/5

EXERCISE 5.2 — Differentiability

 KEY KEYWORDS: Derivative, Differentiable, LHD, RHD, Differentiability ↔ Continuity

22. DIFFERENTIABILITY — Definition

f is differentiable at x = a if the derivative exists:
f'(a) = lim [f(a+h) − f(a)] / h as h→0
LHD = lim [f(a−h) − f(a)] / (−h) as h→0■
RHD = lim [f(a+h) − f(a)] / h as h→0■
f is differentiable at a ■ LHD = RHD

23. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

★ Differentiable at a → Continuous at a (Differentiability IMPLIES Continuity)
★ Continuous at a does NOT imply Differentiable at a
■ Note: CLASSIC EXAMPLE: f(x) = |x| is continuous at x=0 but NOT differentiable at x=0.
For f(x) = |x|: LHD at 0 = −1, RHD at 0 = +1 → LHD ≠ RHD → not differentiable

24. STANDARD DERIVATIVES TO MEMORISE

Function Derivative Function Derivative
x^n n·x^(n−1) sin x cos x
e^x e^x cos x −sin x
a^x a^x · ln(a) tan x sec²x
ln x 1/x cot x −cosec²x
log_a(x) 1/(x·ln a) sec x sec x · tan x
√x 1/(2√x) cosec x −cosec x · cot x
sin■¹x 1/√(1−x²) cos■¹x −1/√(1−x²)
tan■¹x 1/(1+x²) cot■¹x −1/(1+x²)
sec■¹x 1/(|x|√(x²−1)) cosec■¹x −1/(|x|√(x²−1))

■ Note: Memorise ALL inverse trig derivatives — they appear almost every year in boards!

EXERCISE 5.3 — Chain Rule, Implicit & Parametric Differentiation

KEY KEYWORDS: Chain Rule, Composite Function, Implicit, Parametric, dy/dx

25. CHAIN RULE (Composite Functions)

If y = f(u) and u = g(x), then:
dy/dx = (dy/du) × (du/dx)
This extends: if y = f(g(h(x))), then dy/dx = f'(g(h)) · g'(h) · h'(x)

Chain Rule Examples:

y = sin(x²) → dy/dx = cos(x²) · 2x
y = e^(sinx) → dy/dx = e^(sinx) · cosx
 y = (3x²+5)^4→ dy/dx = 4(3x²+5)³ · 6x = 24x(3x²+5)³
y = ln(sinx) → dy/dx = (1/sinx) · cosx = cotx

26. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

When y is not expressed explicitly as f(x) but is defined implicitly by F(x,y) = 0:
• Differentiate both sides w.r.t. x
• Remember: d/dx[f(y)] = f'(y) · dy/dx (chain rule for y terms)
• Collect all dy/dx terms on one side, then solve
Example: x² + y² = r² → 2x + 2y(dy/dx) = 0 → dy/dx = −x/y

[PYQ] If x^y + y^x = a^b, find dy/dx. [Common board question — use logarithmic
differentiation]
[PYQ] If x² + xy + y² = 100, find dy/dx. → 2x + y + x(dy/dx) + 2y(dy/dx) = 0 → dy/dx =
−(2x+y)/(x+2y)

27. LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION

Useful when function is of the form y = f(x)^g(x) or a product/quotient of many terms.
• Step 1: Take log of both sides: ln y = g(x)·ln f(x)
• Step 2: Differentiate both sides w.r.t. x
• Step 3: Multiply by y to get dy/dx
y = x^x → ln y = x·ln x → (1/y)(dy/dx) = ln x + 1 → dy/dx = x^x(1 + ln x)
★ Whenever you see x^x, (sinx)^(cosx), x^(sinx) etc., use LOGARITHMIC differentiation!

28. PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION

If x = f(t) and y = g(t), then:
dy/dx = (dy/dt) / (dx/dt) = g'(t) / f'(t)
d²y/dx² = [d/dt(dy/dx)] / (dx/dt)
[PYQ] x = a·cos³θ, y = a·sin³θ — find dy/dx.
dx/dθ = −3a·cos²θ·sinθ, dy/dθ = 3a·sin²θ·cosθ
dy/dx = (3a·sin²θ·cosθ)/(−3a·cos²θ·sinθ) = −tanθ

29. SECOND ORDER DERIVATIVE

d²y/dx² = d/dx(dy/dx) [differentiate dy/dx again w.r.t. x]
■ Note: Also written as y'' or f''(x). Used in maxima/minima and rate problems.
FORMULA SHEET & QUICK REVISION

MATRICES — Key Formulas

(AB)' = B'A' | (ABC)' = C'B'A'
A = (A+A')/2 + (A−A')/2 [symmetric part + skew-symmetric part]
Symmetric: A' = A | Skew-symmetric: A' = −A | Diagonal of skew-sym = 0

DETERMINANTS — Key Formulas

|AB| = |A||B| | |A'| = |A| | |kA| = k^n |A| for n×n matrix
A·Adj(A) = |A|·I | A^(−1) = Adj(A)/|A| | |A^(−1)| = 1/|A|
Area of ∆ = (1/2)|det| [with vertices as rows]
Collinear ↔ det = 0

CONTINUITY & DIFFERENTIABILITY — Key Formulas

Continuity: LHL = RHL = f(a)
Differentiability: LHD = RHD
Chain Rule: d/dx[f(g(x))] = f'(g(x))·g'(x)
Parametric: dy/dx = (dy/dt)/(dx/dt)
Log. Diff.: y = f(x)^g(x) → ln y = g(x)·ln f(x) → differentiate
Implicit: F(x,y)=0 → differentiate both sides, treat y as function of x

LAST MINUTE REMINDERS

★ det(I) = 1 | det(O) = 0
★ Singular matrix has no inverse
★ AB ≠ BA in general, but |AB| = |BA| = |A||B|
★ Continuous does not mean Differentiable; but Differentiable ALWAYS means Continuous
★ For piecewise functions, always check boundary for both continuity AND differentiability
★ d/dx(x^n) = n·x^(n−1) works for all real n, not just integers

ALL THE BEST FOR YOUR EXAM! YOU'VE GOT THIS! ■