Blockchain Technolgies

Important Notes

Module 3

Course: Blockchain Technolgies

Course Code: CST428

Name:

APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University

 Part A

1. Explain Bitcoin transaction process and transaction validation. (3 Marks)

(June 2023, August 2024)

Answer:

A Bitcoin transaction is the process of transferring bitcoins from one user to another
through the blockchain network. It is created by the sender and then verified by the
network before being accepted as valid. The transaction contains details such as the
sender address, receiver address, and amount to be transferred.

• First, the sender creates the transaction and signs it using the private key. This
digital signature proves that the sender is the rightful owner of the bitcoins being
spent.

• The signed transaction is then broadcast to the Bitcoin network, where other nodes
receive it and check whether it follows the rules of the system.

• In validation, nodes verify the signature, confirm that the sender has sufficient
balance, and ensure that the same bitcoin is not being spent twice. Only valid
transactions are accepted and later included in a block by miners.

2. Explain mining in blockchain and Proof of Work (PoW). (3 Marks) (June

2023, May 2024)

Answer:

Mining is the process of creating new blocks in a blockchain by collecting transactions,

validating them, and solving a computational puzzle. It is the method used in many
cryptocurrencies to maintain security and add new records to the chain.

• Miners collect pending transactions and arrange them into a block. They then try
to find a valid hash for that block by changing the nonce value repeatedly.

• The goal is to generate a hash that satisfies the difficulty target set by the network.
This requires trial and error and a large amount of computational work.

• Proof of Work (PoW) is the consensus mechanism used in this process. It proves
that the miner has spent enough computational effort to earn the right to add the
block. The first miner to solve the puzzle gets the reward, and the block becomes

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 part of the blockchain.

3. Explain Byzantine fault tolerance and Byzantine generals problem. (3

Marks) (October 2023)

Answer:

The Byzantine Generals Problem is a classical distributed systems problem that explains
how a group of participants can reach agreement when some of them may be faulty or
dishonest. It shows the difficulty of maintaining trust in a system where nodes do not
fully trust each other.

• In the problem, several generals must agree on whether to attack or retreat, but
some generals may send false or conflicting messages. The challenge is to ensure
that all honest generals make the same decision.

• Byzantine Fault Tolerance (BFT) is the ability of a system to continue functioning

correctly even when some nodes behave maliciously, fail, or send wrong information.

• In blockchain, BFT is important because the network must remain secure and
consistent even if some nodes are dishonest. It helps honest nodes agree on the
same valid ledger state.

4. Explain coinbase transaction and Genesis block. (3 Marks) (October 2023,

April 2025)

Answer:

A coinbase transaction is a special transaction in a block that creates new coins as a

reward for the miner who successfully mines the block. It is different from normal trans-
actions because it has no input from a previous user transaction.

• The coinbase transaction is usually the first transaction in a block. It gives the
miner the block reward and may also include transaction fees collected from users.

• It is a reward mechanism that motivates miners to participate in the mining process

and secure the network.

The Genesis block is the first block in the blockchain and is also called block 0.

• It does not refer to any previous block, because there is no block before it.

• It acts as the starting point of the entire blockchain and defines the base structure
of the chain.

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5. Explain forks in blockchain. (3 Marks) (August 2024)

Answer:

A fork in blockchain is a situation where the blockchain splits into two different paths. It
happens when there is a change in rules, software update, or disagreement among nodes
about how blocks should be validated.

• Soft fork: This is a backward-compatible change. Old nodes can still recognize
the new blocks, so the network remains mostly unified.

• Hard fork: This is a non-compatible change. Old nodes cannot accept the new
rules, so the blockchain may split into two separate chains.

• Forks are important because they allow blockchain systems to evolve, but they can
also cause temporary confusion or permanent chain separation.

6. Explain wallets and their types. (3 Marks) (October 2023)

Answer:

A wallet in blockchain is a tool used to store public and private keys and to manage
cryptocurrency transactions. It does not store the coins themselves; instead, it stores the
keys needed to access and transfer them.

• Hot wallets: These are connected to the internet. They are convenient for frequent
transactions, but they are less secure because they are more exposed to online
attacks.

• Cold wallets: These are not connected to the internet. They are much safer for
long-term storage of cryptocurrencies, but they are less convenient for daily use.

• Software wallets: These are applications installed on mobile phones or computers.

They are easy to use and suitable for regular transactions.

• Hardware wallets: These are physical devices used to store private keys securely.
They provide strong security and are commonly used by people who hold large
amounts of cryptocurrency.

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7. Explain RAFT consensus algorithm. (3 Marks) (April 2025)

Answer:

RAFT is a consensus algorithm used in distributed systems to maintain a consistent

replicated log across multiple nodes. It is designed to be easier to understand than many
other consensus methods.

• RAFT works by electing one node as the leader. The leader is responsible for
managing log updates and coordinating the other nodes.

• The remaining nodes act as followers. They accept entries from the leader and keep
their logs updated according to the leader’s instructions.

• If the leader fails, the followers start a new election and choose another leader. This
ensures that the system continues to work without interruption.

8. Explain hash rate in Bitcoin. (3 Marks) (September 2025)

Answer:

Hash rate in Bitcoin refers to the speed at which a miner or the entire network performs
hashing operations during mining. It shows how much computational power is being used
to solve the mining puzzle.

• It is measured in hashes per second. A higher hash rate means that more hash
calculations are being performed every second.

• If a miner or network has a higher hash rate, it has a better chance of finding a
valid block faster. This improves mining success.

• A high hash rate also makes the blockchain more secure, because it becomes harder
for attackers to control the network or rewrite transactions.

9. If your blockchain network has 6 Byzantine nodes, what is the minimum

number of nodes that are required to ensure Byzantine fault tolerance using
PBFT protocol? (3 Marks)

Answer:

In Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT), the total number of nodes required is
given by the formula:

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 N = 3F + 1

where F is the number of Byzantine (faulty) nodes.

Given:
F =6

N = 3 × 6 + 1 = 18 + 1 = 19

Minimum number of nodes required = 19

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 Part B
1. Explain consensus algorithms and its need in blockchain. (7 Marks) (June
2023, August 2024)

Answer:

Consensus is the process by which multiple nodes in a distributed blockchain network

agree on a single, consistent state of the ledger. It is the backbone of blockchain technol-
ogy, as it enables decentralization by removing the need for a central authority.
In a distributed system, nodes do not trust each other completely. Therefore, achieving
agreement on a common value becomes challenging, especially when some nodes may be
faulty or malicious. Consensus algorithms are used to solve this problem and ensure that
all honest nodes maintain the same version of the blockchain.

Need for Consensus in Blockchain:

• Decentralization: Consensus removes the need for a central authority and allows
multiple nodes to participate in decision-making.

• Consistency of Ledger: It ensures that all nodes agree on the same transaction
history and block sequence.

• Security: It protects the network from attacks such as double spending and mali-
cious activities.

• Fault Tolerance: The system continues to function correctly even if some nodes
fail or behave dishonestly.

• Trustless Environment: Users do not need to trust each other because the con-
sensus mechanism ensures correctness.

Consensus Mechanism:
A consensus mechanism is a set of rules followed by nodes to agree on the validity of
transactions and blocks. Different blockchain systems use different consensus algorithms
depending on their requirements.

Requirements of Consensus:

• Agreement: All honest nodes must agree on the same value.

• Integrity: A node cannot make multiple decisions in one consensus cycle.

• Validity: The agreed value must be proposed by at least one honest node.

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 • Fault Tolerance: The system must work even if some nodes are faulty or malicious.

• Termination: All honest nodes must eventually reach a decision.

Examples of Consensus Algorithms:

• Proof of Work (PoW): Uses computational power to validate blocks.

• Proof of Stake (PoS): Uses stake or ownership to select validators.

• Proof of Authority (PoA): Uses trusted validators in permissioned systems.

The choice of consensus algorithm depends on the type of blockchain. Public blockchains
generally use PoW or PoS, while private or permissioned blockchains may use PoA or
Byzantine fault-tolerant algorithms.

2. Explain Paxos algorithm for crash fault tolerance. (8 Marks) (October

2023, May 2024, April 2025, September 2025)

Answer:

Paxos is a distributed consensus algorithm developed by Leslie Lamport. It is used to

achieve agreement among multiple nodes in a network, even when some nodes fail (crash
faults). It ensures that the system continues to function correctly despite failures.
Paxos works using three types of roles:

• Proposer: Proposes a value.

• Acceptor: Accepts or rejects proposals.

• Learner: Learns the final agreed value.

Working of Paxos (5 Marks):

Paxos is a two-phase protocol consisting of the prepare phase and accept phase.

1. Prepare Phase: The proposer sends a prepare message <prepare(n)> to all

acceptors. Here, n is the proposal number.

2. Promise / Acknowledgment: Acceptors respond with an acknowledgment <ack(n,v,s)>

if n is the highest proposal number seen. They promise not to accept lower-numbered
proposals.

3. Accept Request: If the proposer receives acknowledgments from a majority of

acceptors, it sends <accept(n,v)> to them. This means the value is proposed

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 for final acceptance.

4. Acceptance: Acceptors accept the proposal if it is valid and not outdated. If a

majority accepts, consensus is reached.

5. Learning Phase: Acceptors send <accepted(n,v)> to learners. Learners up-

date and learn the final agreed value.

Paxos ensures agreement using majority voting, so even if some nodes fail, the system
can still reach consensus.

Example:
Consider a system with 3 nodes (A, B, C). To tolerate one failure, Paxos requires a
majority (2 out of 3 nodes).

• Node A proposes a value and sends a prepare message.

• Nodes B and C respond with acknowledgments.

• A sends an accept request.

• If B and C accept, the value is decided.

Even if one node fails, the other two can still reach agreement.

Benefits of Paxos (3 Marks):

• Fault Tolerance: Can tolerate crash failures as long as a majority of nodes are
active.

• Consistency: Ensures that all nodes agree on the same value.

• Reliability: Works correctly even in unreliable networks with message loss or

delays.

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3. What are crash fault tolerant algorithms? Compare PoW and PoS. (7
Marks) (June 2023)

Answer:

Crash Fault Tolerant Algorithms:

Crash fault tolerant algorithms are consensus algorithms designed to ensure that a dis-
tributed system continues to function correctly even when some nodes fail or stop working
(crash faults). In such systems, nodes may fail by stopping execution or losing messages,
but they do not behave maliciously.
These algorithms ensure that all active and honest nodes can still reach agreement on a
common value, even if some nodes are not responding. Paxos and RAFT are common
examples of crash fault tolerant algorithms.
They improve system reliability by allowing the system to tolerate failures and continue
operation without interruption.

Comparison of Proof of Work (PoW) and Proof of Stake (PoS):

Feature Proof of Work (PoW) Proof of Stake (PoS)

Working Principle Based on solving computa- Based on stake (ownership of
tional puzzles coins)
Resource Requirement Requires high computational Requires ownership of cryp-
power tocurrency
Energy Consumption Very high energy usage Low energy consumption
Block Validation Miners compete to solve puz- Validators are selected based
zles on stake
Security Highly secure and proven Secure but depends on stake
distribution
Speed Slower due to computation Faster block validation
time
Example Bitcoin, Litecoin Ethereum (PoS), Peercoin

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4. Explain the working of Proof of Stake (PoS) with a neat sketch. (6 Marks)
(May 2024)

Answer:

Proof of Stake (PoS) is a consensus mechanism where the right to validate a block is given
based on the amount of cryptocurrency (stake) a participant holds. Instead of solving
computational puzzles like in PoW, validators are selected based on their stake.

Working of PoS (4 Marks):

• Each participant in the network locks a certain amount of cryptocurrency as their

stake.

• A stake calculator is used to determine the probability of a node being selected

as the next proposer. Higher stake increases the chance of selection.

• Based on the stake and other factors, a new proposer (validator) is selected to
create the next block.

• The selected validator verifies transactions and proposes a new block to the network.

• Other nodes validate the block, and once accepted, it is added to the blockchain.

• The validator receives a reward for successfully creating the block.

Figure (2 Marks):

Fig: Working of Proof of Stake (PoS)

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5. Explain the working of Proof of Work (PoW) with a neat sketch. (6 Marks)

Answer:

Proof of Work (PoW) is a consensus mechanism used in blockchain where miners solve
computational puzzles to validate transactions and add new blocks to the blockchain. It
ensures security and prevents malicious activities such as double spending.

Working of PoW (4 Marks):

• Miners collect valid transactions and form a candidate block.

• The block data, along with the previous block hash and a nonce value, is passed
through a hash function.

• Miners repeatedly change the nonce and compute the hash until a valid hash is
found.

• The generated hash must satisfy a predefined target value (difficulty condition).

• If the hash does not meet the target, the nonce is changed and hashing is repeated.

• Once a valid hash is found, the block is accepted and added to the blockchain.

• The miner who finds the valid hash first receives a reward.

Figure (2 Marks):

Fig: Working of Proof of Work (PoW)

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6. Explain Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT). (7 Marks) (April
2025, September 2025)

Answer:

Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) is a consensus algorithm developed by

Miguel Castro and Barbara Liskov to achieve agreement in distributed systems even in the
presence of Byzantine faults (malicious or faulty nodes). :contentReference[oaicite:0]index=0
PBFT works in a system with N = 3F + 1 nodes, where F faulty nodes can be tolerated.
It ensures that all honest nodes agree on the same value even if some nodes behave
incorrectly.

Participants:

• Primary (Leader): Handles client requests.

• Replicas (Backups): Validate and agree on the request.

• Client: Sends request and receives response.

Working of PBFT (Consensus in Presence of Byzantine Faults):

PBFT operates in rounds and consists of three main phases: pre-prepare, prepare, and
commit.

1. Pre-Prepare Phase: The client sends a request to the primary node. The primary
assigns a sequence number and broadcasts a pre-prepare message to all replicas.
Replicas verify the message (signature, sequence number, and validity).

2. Prepare Phase: Each replica broadcasts a prepare message to all other replicas.
A replica waits until it receives at least 2F + 1 matching prepare messages. This
ensures that a majority agrees on the same request.

3. Commit Phase: Each replica sends a commit message to others. When a replica
receives 2F +1 valid commit messages, it executes the request and updates its state.
The result is then sent to the client.

The client accepts the result only after receiving at least 2F + 1 identical replies. Thus,
even if some nodes are faulty, consensus is achieved through majority agreement.

Advantages:

• Provides fast and deterministic finality (no need for multiple confirmations).

• Energy efficient compared to PoW.

• Can tolerate Byzantine faults effectively.

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Disadvantages:

• Not highly scalable due to large communication overhead.

• Suitable mainly for permissioned or consortium networks.

• Vulnerable to Sybil attacks if identities are not controlled.

7. Explain the different steps involved in mining a Bitcoin. What is the role
of a miner in a Bitcoin network? (8 Marks) (June 2023, October 2023, April
2025)

Answer:

Mining is the process by which new blocks are added to the Bitcoin blockchain. It involves
validating transactions and solving a computational puzzle using Proof of Work (PoW).
This process ensures security, prevents double spending, and introduces new bitcoins into
the system.

Steps Involved in Bitcoin Mining:

1. Synchronization with Network: When a miner joins the network, it downloads

the existing blockchain from other nodes to stay updated. This ensures that the
miner works on the latest version of the ledger.

2. Transaction Collection and Validation: The miner collects pending transac-

tions from the network and verifies them. This includes checking digital signatures
and ensuring no double spending.

3. Block Formation: Valid transactions are grouped into a block. The block contains
transaction data, previous block hash, and a nonce value.

4. Proof of Work (PoW): The miner repeatedly changes the nonce and computes
the hash of the block header. The goal is to find a hash that is less than the
network’s difficulty target.

5. Block Validation and Broadcasting: Once a valid hash is found, the miner
broadcasts the block to the network. Other nodes verify the block.

6. Block Addition: If the block is accepted by the majority of nodes, it is added to

the blockchain.

7. Reward Generation: The miner receives a block reward (new bitcoins) along
with transaction fees. This incentivizes miners to participate in the network.

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Role of a Miner in Bitcoin Network:

• Transaction Validation: Miners verify the correctness of transactions before

adding them to a block.

• Maintaining Blockchain Integrity: By solving PoW, miners ensure that only

valid blocks are added to the chain.

• Securing the Network: Mining makes it difficult for attackers to alter past
transactions due to high computational cost.

• Creating New Bitcoins: Miners introduce new coins into circulation through
block rewards.

• Consensus Participation: Miners help achieve consensus by agreeing on the valid

chain of blocks.

8. With a neat diagram explain the structure of a transaction in Bitcoin.

Explain Unspent Transaction Output (UTXO) and its use in transaction ver-
ification. (7 Marks) (October 2023)

Answer:

A Bitcoin transaction is a data structure that represents the transfer of value between
users. It consists of three main parts: metadata, inputs, and outputs. Transactions are
grouped together to form the body of a block.

Structure of Bitcoin Transaction:

• Metadata: This includes general information about the transaction such as version
number, transaction size, number of inputs and outputs, and lock_time. It helps
define how and when the transaction is valid.

• Inputs: Inputs refer to previous transaction outputs that are being spent. Each
input contains a reference to a previous transaction and includes a script (unlocking
script) that proves ownership.

• Outputs: Outputs specify where the bitcoins are being sent. Each output contains:

– Amount (in Satoshis)

– Script size

– Locking script (conditions required to spend the output)

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Unspent Transaction Output (UTXO):
A UTXO is an output of a transaction that has not yet been spent. It represents the
available balance that can be used in future transactions.

• Each transaction output becomes a UTXO until it is used as an input in another

transaction.

• When a user wants to make a payment, they use one or more UTXOs as inputs.

Role of UTXO in Transaction Verification:

• Ensures that the same output is not spent more than once (prevents double spend-
ing).

• Nodes verify whether the referenced UTXO exists and is unspent.

• Validates ownership by checking the unlocking script against the locking script.

• Helps maintain the correct balance without storing account balances explicitly.

Thus, UTXOs play a key role in maintaining transaction integrity and verifying the
correctness of Bitcoin transactions.

9. Explain Bitcoin payment process from user perspective / Explain the life
cycle of a transaction. (7 Marks) (April 2025, August 2024)

Answer:

The Bitcoin payment process, also known as the transaction lifecycle, describes how a
transaction is created, verified, and confirmed in the blockchain network from the user’s
perspective.

Steps in Bitcoin Transaction Lifecycle:

1. Transaction Creation: The sender creates a transaction using wallet software by

specifying the receiver’s address and the amount to be sent.

2. Digital Signing: The wallet signs the transaction using the sender’s private key.
This ensures authenticity and proves ownership of funds.

3. Broadcasting: The signed transaction is broadcast to the Bitcoin network using

a flooding mechanism. It is propagated to all nodes in the network.

4. Transaction Pool (Mempool): The transaction is temporarily stored in a trans-

action pool (memory pool) of nodes. This pool holds unconfirmed transactions

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 waiting to be included in a block.

5. Validation and Block Inclusion: Miners verify the transaction and include it in
a candidate block. Only valid transactions are selected for mining.

6. Mining and Block Creation: Miners perform Proof of Work to solve a compu-
tational puzzle. Once solved, the new block containing the transaction is broadcast
to the network.

7. Block Verification and Confirmation: Other nodes verify the block and add it
to the blockchain. Each subsequent block added increases the confirmation count.

8. Final Confirmation: The receiver sees confirmations in their wallet. Typically,

after 3 to 6 confirmations, the transaction is considered secure and irreversible. This
reduces the possibility of double spending.

10. What is a blockchain wallet? Describe any four types of wallets. (7

Marks) (May 2024, September 2025)

Answer:

A blockchain wallet is a software or hardware tool used to generate, store, and manage
cryptographic keys (public and private keys). These keys are used to send and receive
cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin.
A wallet does not actually store coins. Instead, it stores private keys that provide access
to transaction outputs (UTXOs) recorded on the blockchain. The balance of a user is
calculated by summing all unspent transaction outputs associated with their keys.
Wallets also perform important functions such as signing transactions, maintaining trans-
action history, and managing user balances.

Types of Wallets:

• Non-deterministic Wallets: These wallets generate private keys randomly and

store them independently. They are also called “Just a bunch of keys” wallets.
Managing multiple keys becomes difficult and requires frequent backups.

• Deterministic Wallets: In these wallets, all keys are generated from a single seed
value using hash functions. The seed is usually represented as mnemonic words.
This makes backup and recovery easier since only the seed needs to be stored.

• Hardware Wallets: These are physical devices used to store private keys securely.
They are tamper-resistant and provide high security. Examples include Trezor and
Ledger wallets.

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 • Online Wallets: These wallets are hosted on cloud platforms and accessed through
web interfaces. They are easy to use but require trust in the service provider.

• Mobile Wallets: These wallets are installed on smartphones and allow users to
make quick payments. They support features like QR code scanning for transactions.

11. Explain various steps in transaction validation with respect to Bitcoin.

(7 Marks) (September 2025)

Answer:

Transaction validation in Bitcoin is the process by which nodes verify whether a transac-
tion is correct, valid, and follows all protocol rules before it is accepted into the network
and included in a block. This process ensures security and prevents fraud such as double
spending.
Whenever a transaction is broadcast in the network, full nodes independently verify it
using a series of checks before forwarding or accepting it.

Steps in Transaction Validation:

1. Checking Transaction Format: The node first checks whether the transaction
structure is valid. This includes verifying fields such as inputs, outputs, size, and
syntax correctness.

2. Verification of Inputs (UTXO Check): Each input of the transaction must

refer to a valid unspent transaction output (UTXO). This ensures that the input
has not been spent before and prevents double spending.

3. Input-Output Value Check: The total value of outputs must not exceed the
total value of inputs. If outputs are greater than inputs, it would mean new bitcoins
are being created, which is not allowed. The difference between input and output is
treated as transaction fee.

4. Digital Signature Verification: The unlocking script (signature) provided in the

input is verified against the locking script of the previous output. This confirms
that the sender has the right to spend the bitcoins.

5. Script Validation: The combined script (unlocking + locking) is executed. If the

script evaluates to true, the transaction is considered valid.

6. Double Spending Check: The node ensures that the same input is not used in
multiple transactions. This guarantees that a bitcoin cannot be spent more than
once.

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 7. Addition to Mempool: Once all checks are successful, the transaction is added
to the transaction pool (mempool). It waits here until it is selected by miners for
inclusion in a block.

12. Explain the mining algorithm used in Bitcoin with the help of a flowchart.
(7 Marks)

Answer:

Mining in Bitcoin is the process of creating new blocks by solving a cryptographic puzzle
using Proof of Work (PoW). It ensures security of the network and adds new bitcoins
into circulation.

Steps in Mining Algorithm:

1. The miner retrieves the previous block’s header from the blockchain.

2. A set of valid transactions from the network is collected and a new block is proposed.

3. The miner computes the hash using SHA-256 by combining:

• Previous block hash

• Transaction data

• Nonce value

4. The generated hash is compared with the target difficulty value.

5. If the hash is less than the target, the block is valid and broadcast to the network.

6. The miner receives the block reward and transaction fees.

7. If the hash is not valid, the nonce is incremented and the process is repeated.

Flowchart:

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 Start

Propose New Block

Previous Block Header Generate Hash Nonce

No Increment Nonce
Hash < Target?

Yes
Publish Block

Fetch Reward

Fig: Bitcoin Mining Process Flowchart

13. Let us assume, for consensus in Bitcoin, instead of PoW, a random node
is selected as the winner who can propose the next block in the blockchain.
If the randomly chosen node is a malicious (Byzantine) node, then which of
the following statements is true? Justify your answer. (7 Marks)

1. The malicious node can steal Bitcoin from other addresses

2. The malicious node can make a denial-of-service attack

3. The malicious node can make a double spend attack

Answer:

In Bitcoin, the Proof of Work (PoW) mechanism ensures that block creation requires
significant computational effort. This prevents malicious nodes from easily controlling
the network. If instead a random node is selected to propose a block, then a malicious
node can gain control without any cost, which weakens the security of the system.

1. The malicious node can steal Bitcoin from other addresses — False

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A malicious node cannot steal bitcoins from other users because spending bitcoins requires
valid digital signatures generated using the owner’s private key. Without access to private
keys, it is impossible to transfer funds from another user’s address.

2. The malicious node can make a denial-of-service attack — True

A malicious node can disrupt the network by refusing to include valid transactions in
the block or by delaying/blocking block propagation. This affects the availability of the
network and can temporarily prevent transactions from being processed.

3. The malicious node can make a double spend attack — True

Since the node is selected randomly without requiring computational work, it can propose
conflicting transactions and include them in different blocks. Without PoW, there is no
strong mechanism to prevent such behavior, making double spending possible.

Conclusion:
Statements (2) and (3) are true, while statement (1) is false. This demonstrates the
importance of PoW in securing the Bitcoin network against malicious behavior.

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