The Sentence

Definition: Sentence is the group of words that expresses a complete thought. To be a sentence,
a group of words must mean something. If no meaning is received from what is supposed to be a
sentence, communication will be disrupted and confusion will arise. It is, therefore, important
that the words you write as sentences express complete thought.

Example: Abel sat in his office yesterday at 7:30.

This sentence can express a complete thought, so it is a sentence.

To see a glance whether or not group of words is a sentence, consider whether the words make
sense.

Example: It was a hot day.

This group of words makes sense because they express a complete thought. Therefore, they make
a sentence.

A group of words may not be a sentence unless it contains meaning or message/ it expresses a
complete thought.

Example: As it was a hot day.

Sat in the office

The students in the classroom

Here, the sentences are “no-sense” group of words because the thoughts are not complete.
Therefore, these groups of words are not a sentence.

A grammatically correct sentence is not enough by itself to express a complete thought. It must
be acceptable and sensible to the speakers of the language.

The door opened the window.

Abel killed a tree.

Activity

Identify which of the following groups of words are sentences and which are not.
1. Grass grows.
2. Before noon.
3. Mosquitoes bite.
4. The new secretary in his office.
5. As he enters into the classroom.

Read the following and classify them as phrase, clause or sentence.

1. Cracked the egg
2. Abel studied for two hours.
3. The first block of the campus
4. Carefully climbed the ladder
5. So as to earn his living
6. Which is a bad habit
7. No matter how hard he worked
8. The baby was asleep
9. While I was studying
10. The driver was ill, so the meeting cannot take place.
10.1. Parts of a Sentence and their Order

There are two main parts of a sentence. These are naming part (subject) and telling part
(predicate)

A. Subject

We call the naming part of a sentence, the subject. The subject denotes the person or the thing
about which something is said. In the other words, who or what a sentence speaks about is called
the subject.

The subject of a sentence may be only one word, or it may be made up of a number of words.
Subjects can be categorized according to whether they are complete, simple, or whether they
occur in a sentence that uses unusual word order.

Simple subject

The simple subject (ss) is the one- word subject with all modifiers, phrases, and clauses stripped
away. A simple subject is always either a noun or pronoun.

Example: Snow falls.

The two leading manufacturers, Howlett-packard and Texas instruments, steadily

released more feature-laden calculators during the 1980s& 1990s.

In the above two sentences, the underlined parts represent the subject of each sentence.

Note:

 The subject of the sentence is always a noun (a person, place, thing or concepts) or a
pronoun (a word such as I, You, he, she, they, it, we used in a place of noun).
 In a command (imperative/s), the subject is suggested rather than stated.

Example: Charge it. = [You] charge it.

Study hard. = [You] study hard. [You] Remember to join the institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering.

In the above sentences, the subject ‘You’ is implied or understood.

B. Predicate

One of the main parts of the sentence is a predicate. A predicate tells something about a subject.
In the above sentence (Snow falls) “falls” is a predicate. It tells something about the subject
‘snow’.
 The predicate of a sentence, like the subject, may be formed from one word (verb) or a
number of words.

Example: I bought a new house.

Activity

Underline the subject once and the predicate twice.

1. Most of the students were absent.
2. There are some creative people.
3. Temesgen works as a head.
4. I didn’t recognize you.
5. Smoking is not allowed here.
6. The most respected directorate presented the proposal.
7. Some people live to eat.
8. Tulu comes in very quietly.
9. She has gone down to river.
10. The man replied to the best of his ability.
11. A green bottle fly stung her on the ankle.

Basic Structure of a sentence

1. S+V
E.g. She smiled.
Volcano strikes.
2. S+V+O
E.g. She prepared a breakfast.
He greeted her.
3. S+V+C
E.g. He is a student.
I am an economist.
4. S+V+Adj
E.g. He is tall.
They are brave.
She is beautiful.
5. S+V+Adv
E.g. She felt exhausted.
He works hard.
They ran quickly. He seems handsome.

6. S+V+IO+DO or S+V+DO+IO
E.g. I sent her a postcard=I sent a postcard to her.
He gave her a candy= he gave a candy to her.
7. S+V+O+C
E.g. I saw her dancing.
8. S+V+O+Adv
E.g. She put the food on the fridge.
They selected Kedir as a representative.
9. V+S (Delayed)
E.g. There is a student outside.
Here are the syllabi.
Activity
Identify the structure of the following sentences.
1. The audience applauded.
 2. We went to the zoo.
3. I kicked the ball.
4. She asked me a question
5. The foul was obvious.
6. I will wash the dishes tomorrow.
7. I love you.
8. Abebe gave them the message.
Word order in a sentence
A sentence is considered to be in order when the subject precedes the predicate.
Example: I am making some progress in my basic writing course.
A subject is “I”. It precedes the predicate “am making ….” In other word, the subject comes
before the predicate.
Note: usually but not always the subject comes before the verb in a sentence
Occasionally, the subject comes after the verb
 In sentences beginning with “Here” + some form of to be or with “There” + some
form of to be “Here” and “There” are never a subject of the sentence.
Example: Here are the test results (who or what are? Results)
There is a fly in my soup.
 In sentences that are deliberately inverted for emphasis.
Example: Out of the stadium into pouring rain marched the parade.
 In question
Example: Are we there yet?
Is she the one?
But notice that in questions beginning with who, whose, where or which, the subject and the verb
are in “normal” order, i.e. subject followed by verb.
Example: Who ate my sandwich?
What caused the accident?
Which car runs best?

Types of Sentences

Sentences may be classified either on the basis of their structures or functions.

Functional classifications of sentences

The English language has four kinds of sentences with function (purpose). These include:
declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory.

a. Declarative sentence

A declarative sentence is a sentence which makes statements or assertions. This type of

sentence makes a statement rather than asking a question or making an exclamation.

Examples:

1. The shelf is filled with books

2. We cannot pump the ocean dry.
3. He takes many hours to prepare.
4. He won’t come tonight.
5. The information is factual.
6. They consulted a doctor.
 Sentences of such kind that make a statement or assertion are called declarative or assertive
sentences.

Activity

Write three declarative sentences and then compare with your friends work.

1.
2.
3.
b. Interrogative sentences

An interrogative sentence asks a question. These kinds of sentences rise in volume when spoken
and are punctuated with question marks when written, usually the verb comes before the subject
of an interrogative sentence.

Example:

1. Where do you live?

2. How did you enter the room if the door was locked?
3. What was Daniel doing here?
4. Did he take the exam?
5. Are they familiar with the drink?
6. Activity

Write three interrogative sentences

1.
2.
3.
c. Imperative sentences

Imperative sentences express a request or a command. An imperative sentence usually ends with a
period (.).

Example

1. Be quiet.
2. Have mercy up on us.
3. Stop writing.
4. Fix the projector.
5. Leave me alone.
6. Don’t drink alcohol.
7. Let’s have a walk.
8. Please help me.

Even if we do not name the person, it is understood that you are talking or writing to someone.

Activity

Write three imperative sentences.

1.
2.
3.
d. Exclamatory sentences
Those sentences which express strong feeling, shock or surprise are exclamatory sentences.

Example

1. How cold the night is!

2. What an amazing film this is!
3. How depressed she looks!
4. Bravo! Well done!
5. What a great teacher he is!
6. How beautiful the campus was!
Activity

Write three exclamatory sentences

1.
2.
3.
Structural Classification of sentences

Structurally, sentences are divided into four categories: simple, compound, complex and
compound-complex.

A. Simple Sentence

A simple sentence is “simple” as long as it remains one clause containing one subject and one
predicate. Either one of these (the subject or predicate) or both can be compound and still be a
simple sentence.

Example: Worku runs.

The above example is a complete sentence. It is a two-word sentence, simple and common in its
structure.

Subject/verb

Worku and his wife run every morning. =compound subject and a predicate.

Abiyu is practicing piano.

I am a first year Economics student in AAU.

Helen worked quickly and efficiently.

Poverty affects many people in Ethiopia,

Lulit studies in the library.

Alem and Belete take a short cut.

Argaw and Konjit ate bread and coffee.

B. Compound Sentences

A compound sentence has two or more main clauses, each containing a subject and a predicate,
each describing an action complete in itself. The clauses in the compound sentences are joined
by connectives – and, but, or, nor, yet, Or by semi colon (;) or colon (:).
We can also use a conjunctive adverb such as “however, thus, therefore, consequently, indeed,
moreover or furthermore”.

Example:

1. We started on time, but a bus delayed us.

2. Night came on and rain fell heavily and we all got very wet.
3. The heart is a muscle, and it pumps a blood.
4. The artist danced beautifully and the crowd cheered.
5. You can borrow the book or read it in the library.
6. Mishame left but I stayed.
7. The coat dries quickly; there is no much waiting.
8. Man proposes; God disposes.

Activity

Now indentify which of the following groups of words are simple sentences and compound
sentences.

1. She cannot ride a horse.

2. He received your message, sent it at once.
3. Great leaders do not bully their people.
4. My aunt and uncle from Bale visit us every summer.
5. The sign was too small, and many people failed to see it.

C .Complex sentences

A complex sentence consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate or more
dependent clauses.

Example: They rested when evening came.

We can understand that the clause “They rested” makes good sense by itself. Hence, it can stand
by itself as a complete sentence. It is therefore, called main (independent) clause.

The clause “When evening came” cannot stand by itself and does not make sense.

Example: If he wins the battle, he will be crowned.

I agree to your proposals, for I think they are reasonable.

Before Tsehay cut it, she had a long hair.

I like to look for information on internet when I have an assignment.

I went to church in the evening after I had supper.

Although he studied hard, he couldn’t get an ‘A’.

Activity

Identify the main and subordinate clauses in the following sentences.

1. Because it was raining, we cannot go out.

2. He asked why I came.
 3. Everything comes if a man works and waits.
4. God saw that the light was good.
5. I know that you will succeed because you are hard-working.

D .Compound-complex Sentence

A compound-complex sentence contains two or more main clauses and one or more
subordinate clauses

Examples:

1. The scientist knew that his experiment would succeed, but avoided publicity until the
final test was complete.
2. Because it was hot day, Hanna ordered a cold Pepsi and drank it at once.
3. She is trying to work hard and discussing with the head office though she hasn’t got any
evidence.
4. There was shortage of budget and the president closed the college when the workers
shouted.
5. I was working my assignment but my friend refused to do by shouting as if he were my
boss.

Activity1

Identify which of the following sentences are complex and which ones are compound-
complex.

1. Quarrels would not last long if the faults were only on-one side.
2. Whatever you do, well.
3. Night came on and we all got very wet as the rain fell heavily.
4. Even though I enjoy pastoral beauty, bugs scare me and flowers make sneeze.

Activity 2

Categorize the following sentences as simple, compound, complex or compound-complex.

1. We watched the game and we went for lunch afterwards._______________________

2. The polio vaccine was discovered by Jones Salk and Albert Sabin.____________________
3. He escaped in 1838 to the north where he changed his name to avoid being caught._________
4. He went to see a doctor because of his illness.___________________
5. The doctor identified the cause of her sickness.___________________
6. They walked quietly and moved to the bedroom although the baby was awakened.__________
7. Unlike most slaves, Douglass learned to read and write.____________________
8. You can give the book to me or you can send it with post office if you don’t believe
them.________________________
9. Worku and his wife run every morning.__________________
10. We started on time but the bus delayed us.__________________
11. He asked me why I came.________________________
12. He received your message; sent it at once.___________________
13. They rested when evening come.____________________________
14. When I get up on time, if someone hasn’t used up all the milk, I will eat
breakfast.___________________
15. When the railroad began, Douglass helped the slaves to escape to the north and they reached
to Cape Town.___________________
16. He came to the meeting but he didn’t ask a question._______________________
17. Semira has done an amazing number of things in her life.____________________
18. The scientist knew that his experiment would succeed, but avoided publicity until the final
test was complete.________________________
19. Although I enjoy pastoral beauty, bugs scare me and flowers make
sneeze.________________
20. We were so bored that we slept all the night smoothly._____________________

Coordination, correlation, subordination and using semi-colon

Clauses can be combined in different manner: coordination, correlation, subordination and using
semi-colon.
Coordination
It involves joining independent clauses with one of the following coordinating conjunctions: and,
but, or, nor, for, yet and so.
e.g. He fiddled with his cufflinks, and he chewed on his tie.
Fanny Dooley likes sunbath, but his friend loves mooning.
She had lost her castanets, so she used her uncle’s dentures.
The cat had lost their Ming vase, yet he didn’t seem to care.
Correlation
It involves creating correlation among bodies /things by using either…or, neither…nor, not
only…but also, both….and, …etc.
e.g. Not only mathematics but also English is compulsory subjects.
Both the faculty dean and the instructors agreed to go to Arbaminch University for lab.
He neither drinks nor smokes.
You can consult either me or your representative about the assignment.
Subordination
It involves turning one of the clauses into a subordinate (dependent) element (one that cannot
stand on its own) through using subordinate conjunctions called dependent word.
e.g. Although Alemitu often thought about joining the choir, she never talked to her friends about
it.
Alemitu never talked to her friends about joining the choir because she was afraid they would
make fun of her.
Unless they worked hard, they will not pass to the next semester.
Tsega, who is Alemitu’s sister, told Alemitu to join the party.
Semi-colon
It can connect two independent clauses with/without the help of conjunctive adverb or
transitional expressions. It is used sparingly and only when two independent clauses are closely
related and properly balanced in terms of length and import.
e.g. Medina has such a beautiful voice; many couples have asked her to sing at their wedding.
Medina’s voice a clear, angelic quality; she clearly enjoys using it.
Faulty Sentences

Faulty sentences are sentences that contain errors or mistakes structurally or semantically. There
are many kinds of errors that students make when writing sentences. This includes fragments,
run-ons, comma splices, dangling modifiers, misplaced modifiers, reference ambiguity,
agreement errors, and faulty parallelism.

Fragments

Any group of words that punctuated as a sentence but that does not have a subject or a complete
verb is a sentence fragment. Following are the most common types of fragments that people
write.
A. Dependent word fragments

A group of words containing a subject and a verb is a clause. A dependent clause, as its name
suggests, cannot stand alone as a sentence, it depends on another clause to make complete sense.

Some more word groups that begin with a dependent word are fragments. The following is a list
of common dependent words.

Dependent Clause cues

After although as as
if as long as as soon as because
before even if even though if
in order that provided that since so
that that though unless until
what whatever where wherever
where as whether whichever while
who whose which
whom

Whenever a clause begins with one of these words or phrases, it is a dependent.

Example: After I cashed my paycheck. (Dependent clause or it is a fragment)

A dependent clause must be attached to an independent clause to give complete thought.

Example: After I cashed my paycheck, I treated myself to dinner.

In the above example, the dependent clause begins with the word “after” attached to the
independent clause to make complete sense.

Ways of Correcting a Dependent word Fragment

 a) By attaching it to the sentence that comes after it or before it.

Example:1. After I cashed my paycheck, I treated myself to dinner.

2. I will not leave the house until I hear from you.

b) By rewriting the sentence to eliminate the fragment.

Example:

1. I cashed my pay check and then treated myself to dinner.

2. I will wait to hear from you.

Note:

 Use the comma if the dependent word group comes at the beginning of sentence (see
example 1’ a’ above).
 Sometimes a dependent words who, that, which, or where appear not at the very start
but near start the of the word group. A fragment often results.

Example: I drove slowly past the old brick house. The place where I grew up.

‘The place where I grew up’ is not in itself a complete thought. We want to know in the same
statement where the place the writer grew up was. The fragment can be corrected by attaching it
to sentence that comes before it.

Example: I drove slowly past the old brick house, the place where I grew up.

B. –ing and to- Fragments

When –ing and to-word appear at or near the start of a word group, a fragment may result. Such
fragment often lacks a subject and part of the verb. People sometime write –ing and to-
fragments because they think the subject and the vern of one sentence will work for next word
group as well.

Example

Trying to find her dog. Elleni walked over the neighboring hood yesterday.

We sat back to watch the movie. Not expecting anything special.

I phoned the balloon store. It being the day before our wedding anniversary.

At the restaurant of Chinese, Tom used chopsticks. To impress his date.

He spent one hour. Eating a small bowl of rice.

How to correct –ing and to- fragments

1. Attach the fragment to the sentence that comes before it or the sentence that comes after it,
which ever makes sense.

e.g. Elleni walked all over the neighboring hood yesterday trying to find her dog.

He spent one hour eating a small bowl of rice.

2. Add a subject and change the –ing to the correct form of the verb.

E.g. We didn’t expect anything special.

3. Change ‘being’ to the correct form of the verb to be (am, are, is was, were).

e.g. It was the day before our wedding anniversary.

4. Make them dependent clauses as participle or infinitive.

e.g. Not expecting anything special, we sat back to watch the movie.

Trying to find her dog, Elleni walked all over the neighborhood yesterday.

To impress his date, Tom used chopsticks at the Chinese restaurant.

C. Added-Detail Fragments

Added detail fragments lack a subject and a verb. They often begin with one of the following
words: also, like, especially, including, except, such as, for example/instance…etc.

People write added-detail fragments because they think that the subject and the verb in one
sentence will serve as the next one. But the subject and verb must be in each word group.

e.g. Before a race, I eat starchy food. Such as bread and spaghetti.

Samuel is taking evening course in Auto mechanics. Also, one in Survey.

My son keeps several objects in his bedroom. Including puppets and mud.

How to correct Added-Detail fragments

1. Attach the fragment to the compete thought that precedes it or insert the fragment within the
preceding sentence.

e.g. Before a race, I ate starchy food such as bread and spaghetti.

My son keeps several objects in his bedroom including puppets and mud.

Samuel is taking evening course in Auto mechanics and Survey.

2. Add a subject and a verb to the fragment to make it a complete sentence.

e.g. Samuel is taking evening course in Auto mechanics. Also, he is taking one in Survey.

D. “Missing piece” Fragments

Sometimes a group of words is punctuates as a sentence but is missing one or more of the
essential parts of a sentence: a subject and a verb.

Example:
 1. Found it under the pile of clothes on your floor. The subject is missing.
2. The arguments about house work. The sentence doesn’t tell you what the arguments were
or did. The verb is missing.
3. During my favorite TV Show. Who or what was or did something? Both subject and verb
are missing.

 Ways of correcting “missing piece” fragments

To change a “missing piece” fragment into a complete sentence, add whatever is missing: a
subject, a verb, or both

1. You may need to add a subject

Example: Your sister found it under the pile of clothes on your floor
2. You may need to add a verb
Example: Their arguments were about house work.
3. You may need to add both a subject and a verb.
Example: My mother always calls during my favorite TV show
4. Or you may need to add a helping verb.
Example: The programmers working around the clock to trace the hacker.
The programmers have been working around the clock to trace the hacker

Activity

In the following exercises, decide whether each group of words is a complete sentence or a
“missing piece” fragment, make each fragment into a complete sentence by adding whatever is
missing the subject, the verb, or both.

1. ___________ To decide on the basis of rumor, not facts.

2. ___________ Grading exams all evening after working all day
3. ___________ We won
4. ___________ Hands over your head
5. ___________ Having worked hard all her life

Activity

Turn each of the following dependent word groups into a sentence by adding a complete thought.
Use a comma after a dependent word group if the dependent word starts the sentence.

1. Although I felt miserable_________________________________

2. The man who found my wallet____________________________
3. When I heard the news__________________________________
4. Because it was raining__________________________________
5. If I don’t get the a rise soon______________________________

Activity
Identify the type of fragments in the following structures and correct them properly.
1. Peter gunned the engine. Forgetting the boat was hooked by the terrorists.
2. Whenever I spray deodorant
3. I put a box of baking soda in the freezer. To get rid of the musty smell.
4. Some European countries remained neutral during WWII. Such as Switzerland
and Portugal.
5. I like all kinds of fresh pizza. But refuse to eat frozen pizza.
6. Because it was raining
7. Health and happiness more important than money.
 8. When I have free time
9. Many students participate in sport club. Understanding the importance of good
health.
10. Basic education great importance to everyone.

Fused Run-on sentences

Fused run-on occurs when two complete sentences are run together with no adequate sign
given to mark the break between them. It occurs when two independent clauses are not separated
by punctuation nor joined by a comma with coordinating conjunction. In other words, a run-on
sentence is two or more sentences incorrectly joined.

Examples: Two suspects were arrested last week one of them was a woman (run-on).

Two suspects were arrested last week; one of them was a woman (correct).

Two suspects were arrested last week. One of them was a woman (correct).

 Leading Causes of Run-on sentence

1. Pronoun

A run-on sentence often occurs when the second independent clause start with a pronoun.
Run-on: Thomas Edison was a productive inventor he held over 1,300 U.S and foreign patents.
Revised: Thomas Edison was a productive inventor. He held over 11,300U.S and foreign
patents.

2. Conjunctive adverbs and other transitional expressions

When the second independent clause starts with the conjunctive adverb (also, however, finally
etc.) or other transitional expressions (besides, and other coordinating conjunctions) so they
cannot work with a comma to join two independent clauses.

Run-on: Thomas Edison was a brilliant scientist; however, his schooling was limited to only
three months of his life.

Revised: Thomas Edison was a brilliant scientist. However, his schooling was limited to only
three months of his life.

3. Explanation

A run-on sentence often occurs when the second independent clause explains or gives an
example of the information in the first clause.

Example

Run-on: Thomas Edison was a genius behind many inventions the phonograph and the light
bulb are among the best known.
Revised: Thomas Edison was a genius behind many inventions. The phonograph and light bulb
are among the best known.

 Ways of Correcting Run-on sentences

1. Dividing the separate thoughts in a run-on sentence into separate sentences
Example:
Run-on: Kasa had paid fifty birr for the car he wanted some parts repaired.
Revised: Kasa had paid fifty birr for the car. He wanted some parts repaired.

2. Correctly joining the parts of a run-on sentence by adding a comma and a coordinating
conjunction.

Example:
Run-on: They thought of borrowing the money they didn’t know whom to turn to.
Revised: They thought of borrowing the money, but they didn’t know whom to turn to.

3. Joining the part of the run-on sentence with a semi colon.

Example:
Run-on: I stayed up all night I am exhausted.
Revised: I stayed up all night; I am exhausted.
Run-on: The rain has stopped we can go home now.
Revised: The rain has stopped; we can go home now.

4. Making one part of the run-on sentence into a dependent clause

Example:

Run-on: Amanuel’s uncle refused to help the girls they were crazy to waste time on.
Revised: Amanuel’s uncle refused to help the girls because he thought they were crazy to waste
time on.

Activity

Revise the following run-on sentences using one of the methods discussed above.

1. The best way to publicize a movie is to say it is “for adults only” then the teen-agers will
flock to see it.
2. Some students question whether literature is relevant to them they should really be asking
whether they are relevant to literature.
3. The wittiness was unwilling to testify he was afraid of the accused man.

Comma splice

It is a faulty sentence if two independent clauses are connected by comma. When two whole
thoughts appear in the same sentence, they need to be joined by specific connectors. A comma is
not enough. Comma splice occurs when a comma alone connects two whole thoughts.

Example: Abaynesh is a History major, Hailu is Biology major.

In the above example, we have two complete thoughts joined together by comma. Thus, there is
comma splice. Don’t use a comma by itself between independent clauses, which are not joined
by coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or etc.)

Use of a comma alone (comma or comma fault) is a failure to recognize the line between
independent clauses. Comma splice might be corrected in four principal ways:
  Use a period and write two sentences.
 Use a semi colon.
 Use a comma and coordinating conjunctions.
 Make one of the clauses independent.

Example: Human nature is seldom as simple as it appears to be, hasty judgments are therefore
often wrong.

Corrections

1. Human nature is seldom as simple as it appears to be. Hasty judgments are therefore
often wrong.
2. Human nature is seldom as simple as it appears to be; hasty judgments are therefore
often wrong.
3. Human nature is seldom as simple as it appears to be, and hasty judgments are therefore
often wrong.
4. Because human nature is seldom as simple as it appears to be, hasty judgments are
therefore often wrong.
I go to school my brother stays at home. (fused run-on)
I go to school, my brother stays at home. (comma splice)

=I go to school. My brother stays at home.

=I go to school; my brother stays at home.
=I go to school but my brother stays at home.
=Though I go to school, my brother stays at home.
Activity
Correct the following run-on sentences using one of the techniques.
1. The library had been closed I couldn’t get any references.
____________________________________________________________.
2. Addis Ababa is developing now, it is the capital of Ethiopia.
___________________________________________________________.
3. The rain stopped we can home now.
___________________________________________________________.
4. I stayed up all night, I am very exhausted.
___________________________________________________________.
5. A number of countries encourage families to have fewer children they are trying to slow
population growth.
____________________________________________________________.
6. People use 17 muscles when they smile they use 43 muscles when they frown.
_____________________________________________________________.
7. I want to go to parties, my wife loves mourning places.
____________________________________________________________
8. The witness was unwilling to testify he was afraid of the accused man.
_________________________________________________________________.
9. The internet is an important service, it enables people to communicate throughout the world.
__________________________________________________________________________.
10. Teff is a crop it is one of the staple food in Ethiopia.
___________________________________________________.
11. Women are not well represented in Ethiopia, they constitute nearly half of the total
population.
________________________________________________________________________.
12. English is thought as a second language in most part of the world it is an international
language of communication.
________________________________________________________________________.
13. All university students need to be able to use computers well computer literacy is essential
for every job now.
________________________________________________________________________.
14. Alemu was brilliant, he failed entrance exam.
______________________________________________.

Dangling Modifiers

A modifier that opens a sentence must be followed immediately by the word it is meant to
describe. Otherwise, the modifier is said to be dangling, and the sentence takes on an
unintended meaning.

Example: While reading the newspaper, my dog sat with me on the front steps.

In the above sentence, the unintended meaning is that the dog was reading the newspaper. What
the writer meant, of course, was that (s/he), the writer, was reading the paper. The writer should
have said: While reading the newspaper, I sat with my dog in the front steps. The dangling
modifier could also be corrected by placing the subject with in the opening word group:

Example: While I was reading the news paper, my dog sat with me on the front steps.
Dangling: Shaving in front of the steamy mirror, the razor nicked Ed’s chin.
Correct: Shaving in front of the steamy mirror, Ed nicked his chin with the razor.
Dangling: Taking the exam, the room was so stuffy that Ali almost fainted.
Correct: Taking the exam, Ali found the room so stuffy that he almost fainted.

 How to correct dangling modifier

1. Place the subject with in the opening word group.

2. Place the subject right after the opening word group.

Activity

Rewrite the following dangling modifiers by using one of the methods.

1. Arriving late, the bus left.

_______________________________________________.

2. Practicing English, communication skill was improved.

__________________________________________________.

3. Worried about English writing skills exam, tutorials are attended regularly.

________________________________________________________________.

4. cheating in exams, disciplinary were taken.

____________________________________________.

5. Collecting manuals from the library, ID is shown to the staff.

_____________________________________________________.
6. While attending class, mobile phones are put on silent mood.

_____________________________________________________.

7. When taking notes, the main ideas and facts are focused on.
_____________________________________________________.
8. After standing all the afternoon, informed us that all the tickets had been sold.
________________________________________________________________________.
9. Arriving late to class, the most important point was missed.
_________________________________________________________.
10. Bored with the daily routine, plans were made to go to Axum.
________________________________________________________.

Misplaced Modifiers

Misplaced modifiers are words that, because awkward placement, do not describe what the
writer intended them to describe. A misplaced modifier can make a sentence confusing or
‘unintentionally funny. To avoid this, place words as close as possible to what they describe.

Misplaced: The toaster was sold to us by a charming Salesman with a money back guarantee.
(The salesman had the money-back guarantee?)

Correct: The toaster with a money back-guarantee was sold to us by a charming Salesman (The
words describing the toaster are now placed next to it)

Limiting modifiers

They are modifiers that limit/restrict the meaning of a word or phrase within a sentence. These
modifiers should be placed directly in front of the word they modify because they can bring
meaning change. Common limiting modifiers include only, even, almost, nearly,..etc.

e. g. Only life exists on earth this means= There is nothing else on earth except life.
Life only exists on earth means=Life does nothing but exists on earth.

Life exists only on earth means=No-where else but on earth one can find life

Life exists on earth only means=More emphatic than the earth

Misplaced: He nearly brushed his teeth for twenty minutes every night. (He came close to
brushing his teeth, but in fact did not brush them at all?)

Correct: He brushed his teeth for nearly twenty minutes every night. (The meaning that he
brushed his teeth for a long -is now clear.)

Activity

Underline the misplaced words in each sentence. Then rewrite the sentence, placing related
words together and thereby making the meaning.

1. The patient talked about his childhood on the psychiatrist’s couch.

2. The crowed watched the tennis players with swiveling heads.
3. Anne ripped the shirt on a car door that she made in sewing class.
4. The woman picked up a heavy frying pan with arthritis.
5. Wachemo University is almost located 230kms away from Addis Ababa.
6. Every students spend a lot of time who is about to take exam.
 7. I spoke to the dorm proctor about my studies, my family and my friends who is a kind
and friendly woman.
8. When entering and leaving campus, students must show ID to the security staff
containing photo.
9. In church, students wear scarves over their heads made of white fabric.
10. At the beginning of second semester, English Club showed a movie on the screen in the
main hall which I had never seen before.

Reference Ambiguity
This occurs due to pronouns referring to different nouns in a single sentence. It can be corrected
by putting the right pronoun/noun instead of the ambiguous one.
e.g. WcU management told students that they are hard working and disciplined.
If students lose their ID card issued by the administrative staff, they replace it as soon as
possible.
There are computers with internet connection in the library which it permits students to use.
Peter told Ayalew that his wife was unhappy.
English teacher, Abeba, told the first year female student that she is intelligent.
In the evening, many students like to watch TV and read if they don’t call us for makeup
class.
In Ethiopian higher institutions, the government sponsors part of it foe underground
students and the students share the remainder.
When staying in Addis Ababa for workshop, I was introduced to two Americans-Mary and
Susan; in fact, she invited me for dinner at her house.

Many students hope to get A’s, but it is difficult to achieve.

To increase one’s fitness, you have to exercise regularly.

Agreement errors
 Subject verb agreement errors

A mistake in subject- verb agreement is sometimes made in the following situations:

1. When words come between the subject and the verb

2. When a verb comes before the subject
3. With compound subject.
4. With indefinite pronouns

A verb must agree with its subject in number. A singular (one person or thing) takes a singular
verb. A plural subject (more than one person or thing) takes a singular verb. A plural subject
(more than one person or thing) takes a plural verb.

My brothers are engineers.

Aster is beautiful.

Alemu teaches us English.

 Words between subject and verb

Words that come between the subject and the verb do not change subject-verb agreement.

Example: The sharp fangs in the dog’s mouth look scary the subject (fangs) is plural and so the
verb (Look) is plural. The words that come between the subject and the verb are a prepositional
phrase: in the dog’s mouth. They do not affect the sub- verb agreement. To find the subject of
certain sentences, you should cross out prepositional phrases.
Example: The lumpy salt in the shakers needs to be changed.
An old Chair with broken legs has sat in our basement for years.

Activity

Underline the subject and lightly cross out any words that come between the subject and
the verb, then double- underline the verb in parentheses that you believe is corrects.

1. Some members of the parents’’ association ( want, Wants) to ban certain books from the
school Library
2. Miscount captions about apes like the gorilla (has, have) turned a relatively peaceful
animal into a terrifying monster.
3. In my opinion, a few slices of pepperoni pizza (make, makes) a great evening.
 Verb before subject

A verb agrees with its subject even when the verb comes before the subject. Words that may
precede the subject include there, here, and, in questions, who, which, what, and where

Examples:

There are wild dogs in our neighborhood.

In the distance was a billow of black smoke.
Here is the news paper?
Where are the children’s coats?

A compound subject is two Subjects separated by a joining word, such as and

Example: Saran and Ahimed are contented couple

Subjects joined by ‘and’ generally take a plural verb.

When subjects are joined by ‘either-or, neither-nor, not only-but also’ the verb agrees with the
subject closer to it.

Example: Neither the negotiator nor the union leaders want the strike to continue

Rules

 The verb agrees with the real subject (nouns) of the sentence.

One of my brothers is a teacher.

Differences of opinion were expressed.

 If two singular nouns suggesting different ideas joined by ‘and,’ plural verbs must be
used.

E.g. Kidus and Bini are my sons.

She and I are friends.

My brother and his friends are watching TV.

Dedication and creativity are the trademarks of successful students.

  If two singular nouns referring to one idea or person, then singular verb must be used.

My brother and helper is seriously sick.

An important politician and administrator is dead.

Knowledge and wisdom makes a person great.

Bread and tea is served for breakfast.

Macaroni and cheese is always available in the cafeteria.

 Nouns (subjects) joined by with, in addition to, accompanied by, as well as and along
with agrees with the first subject.

e.g She as well as you is brave.

Almaz, with her friends, is going to the cinema.

The deans, accompanied with the president, are visiting the new buildings.

 Nouns (subjects) joined by nor, or, not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor should
agree with the closer subject.

e.g Not only the students but also the teacher likes the room.

Neither she nor I am very happy about it.

Either Rosa or you have to take notes for me=Either you or Rosa has to take….

Neither the students nor the professor is in the laboratory.

Neither a notebook nor textbooks are required for this class.

Indefinite pronouns

 Many indefinite pronouns (someone, somebody, something, anyone, anything, no one,

nobody, nothing, everyone, everybody, everything, each, either, neither, one, and this)
require a singular verb.

e.g. Everybody is welcome to attend the meeting.

No one was sent for invitation.

Neither of the students is willing to study.

Each of the new students is encouraged to come to class.

Every man and woman has equal rights.

Each book and magazine is listed in card catalog.

Every man, woman and child needs love.

Either my brother or my uncle likes to read poem.

 Not only the vegetables but also the fruit looks fresh.

 Some indefinite pronouns (both, few, many, most, several) require a plural verb.

e.g Few are offered the opportunity to study abroad.

Most take the advantage of opportunities closer to home.

Several people go to visit Lalibela’s obelisks.

Some indefinite pronouns (all, any, most, none and some) may be either singular or plural
depending on the nouns they offer to.

e.g. Some of the students were missing.

Most of the lecture was over by the time we arrived.

Collective Nouns

 Collective nouns, such as faculty, pair, crew, assembly, congress, species, crowd, army,
team, committee …etc take singular verbs. However, if we want to emphasize differences
among individuals in the group or are referring to the group as individuals, we can use a
plural verb.

e.g The crowd has been kept under control.

The crowds have all purchased tickets.

The lab team takes its work very seriously.

The teams assume separate responsibilities for each study they undertake.

 Collective nouns such as police, poor, elderly and young may take singular or plural
verbs.

e.g. The police direct traffic here between 7:00-9:00 am.

The poor is looking money.

 Some nouns those are plural in form but singular in meaning take a singular verb:
mumps, measles, news, mathematics, economics, wages, politics, robotics …etc.

e.g. Economics is sometimes called “the dismal science.”

The economic news is not very well.

The wages of sin is death.

Politics is a social science.

The United Nations is working for world peace.

The exceptions include scissors, trousers, tidings and pliers.

e.g Are these trousers washed?

The scissors are missing again.

 When plural nouns expressing quantity/distance/time…etc, a singular verb must be used.

e.g Ten years of teaching experience is a long period.

Two hundred dollars is the price of the ticket.

Two miles is too far to walk.

 Mathematical phrases and phrases that name a period of time, a unit of measurement, or
an amount of money take a singular verb.

e.g. Three and three is six.

Eight pages is a long paper on this topic.

In my opinion, two birr/dollars is the price for a cup of coffee.

 In the case of fractions and percentages, the verb agrees with the noun concerned. Use
singular verb for uncountable and plural verb for countable nouns.

e.g Half of the meeting was devoted to questions.

Half of the members were not present.

 Plural titles of individual books, stories, plays, movies, testimonies, television programs,
musical compositions, and magazines take a singular verb.

e.g. The New York Times is read nationwide.

Lyrical ballads was published in 1798 by Wordsworth and Coleridge.

Great Expectations is my favorite book.

 When we use ‘a number’ as a subject, a plural verb is used where as ‘the number’ is used
with a singular verb.

e.g The number of girls is increasing.

A number of girls in this campus are participating in HIV/AIDS club.

 In an inverted word order, a verb must agree in number with the subject. Delayed
subjects occur when the verb comes before the subject in the sentence. The delayed
subject must be made to agree with the verb.

e.g. Here is the syllabus you need.

Here are the students.

There are some model students in the university.

There is one idea to be explored.

  When a relative pronoun such as who, which, that whom…etc is the subject of an
adjective clause, the verb must agree with the antecedent to which the relative pronouns
refer to.

e.g. This is one of the book that you are required for basic writing skills.

He, who is my friend, should help me.

People who do a job well seem to feel better about themselves.

Dr. Alemu wondered why Fikiru was the only student who was not attending lectures
regularly.

When a sentence contains a form of the ‘be verb’ and a noun comes before and after that verb,
the verb must agree with the subject not the complement.

e.g. The cause of his problem was poor study habits.

Poor study habits were the cause of his problem.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

A pronoun must agree in number, person and gender (sex) with its antecedent. The antecedent is
the word to which the pronoun refers.

e.g. Joseph brought her laptop and CDMA to school=his(Third person, singular and masculine)

 Use singular pronoun to refer to such antecedents, such as each, either, neither, one,
anyone, anybody, everybody, another body, nobody and a person.

e.g. Each of the vehicles has their doors locked at night=its

Somebody left their book in the class=his/her

 When a plural pronoun (they, their) is mistakenly used with a singular indefinite pronoun
such as everyone or everybody, correct them by replacing them with his/her, he/she to
make the antecedent plural.

e.g. Everyone must learn to wait their turn=his/her or

People must learn to wait his/her turn=their.

 When two antecedents are joined by and, they are considered as plural.

e.g. Thomas and Jemal are finishing his assignment=their

 When two or more singular antecedents by not or or, they are considered singular.

e.g. Either Fatuma or Chaltu left her headset in the library.

Neither Cheru nor Belete brought his textbook.

 If one of the antecedents is masculine and one feminine, the pronoun can be likewise
masculine or feminine.
e.g. Is either Ahmed or Tsehay brining his/her laptop?

 If one of the antecedents joined by or or nor is singular and one is plural, the pronoun is
made to agree with the nearer antecedent.

e.g. Neither Sami nor his friends want to spend their time studying.

Neither his friends nor Sami wants to spend his time studying.

 A pronoun must refer clearly to the word it replaces. If a pronoun refers to singular, the
pronoun must be singular and that of plural take plural verbs.

e.g. Fasika showed me her new bag.

Students enrolled in art class must provide their own supplies.

Everyone in club must pay his/her dues next week.

Club members must pay their dues.

Anyone in the choir must buy his/her robes.

No one in the class remembered to bring his/her textbook.

Each of the women paid for her own ticket.

Each of the girls had her own sleeping bag.

Activity
Write the correct form of the verb in the space provided
1. Spidery cracks and a layer of dust ___________the ivory keys on the old piano (cover,
covers)
2. In eighteenth- century France, make up and high heels ___________worn by men. (was,
were)
3. Not only the assistant managers but also the secretary __________that the company is
folding (know, knows).
4. In the eighteenth century in France, make-up and high heels ______ (was/were) worn by
men.
5. Everyone _________ (understand/understands) the importance of education.
6. Information about WU rules and regulations ________ (are/is) very important for all
students.
7. If a person practices work continuously, _______ (they, a person) can become an expert
in _______ (his/her/their) job.
8. When you have good health, _______ (one, you) should feel fortunate.
9. Neither I nor you _______ (am, are) responsible for that work.
10. A football team usually _________ (comprise/comprises) eleven players.
11. The manager, together his colleagues, ______ (is/are) working hard for five hours now.
12. Kaleb, with Kidist and her friend, _______ (is/are) going to cinema.
13. Everyone of the rooms _________ (have/has) its own bathroom.
14. Diabetes __________ (are/is) an illness caused by too much sugar in the body.
15. Economics _________ (has/have) become an important discipline.
16. Fifty minutes ___________ (is/are) the maximum length of time allowed for the exam.
17. There _______ (is/are) a lot of problems in the world.
18. There _______ (aren’t/isn’t) any mail for you today.
 19. Half of the money _________ (belong/belongs) to me.
20. Injera and wot _________ (was/were) all they asked for.
21. Meaza is one of the girls who ________ (don’t care/doesn’t care) for herself.
22. The number of dogs in the kebeles __________ (is/are) increasing from time to time.
23. The boy, along with his brothers, __________ (protests/protest) the action of the coach.

Faulty Parallelism

Words in a pair or series should have a parallel structure. By balancing the items in a pair or a
series so that they have the same kind of structure, you will make the sentence clearer and easier
to read. Therefore, parallelism means saying similar things in a similar way. We need to structure
components of a sentence similarly in form and function.

 Notice the following sentences

Tolla enjoys hunting, Socializing with friends, and to read fiction (non parallel).
Tolla enjoys hunting, socializing with friends, and reading fiction (Parallel).
Single life offers more freedom of choice; more security is offered by marriage. (NP)
Single life offers more freedom of choice marriage offers more security. (Parallel)

A: Does Hailu have a big bag?

B: No, he don’t (non-parallel). =doesn’t

N.B:- In writing, parallelism calls for the use of equivalent grammatical forms to express
equivalent ideas. Parallel forms match words in the same form, phrases with phrases, or clauses
with clauses composed of the same verb forms and word order. Parallelism helps you
communicate that two or more items in a group are equally important and make your writing
more graceful. For this reason, it is a good idea to avoid the error of faulty parallelism. Parallel
forms match words in the same form.

e.g. In study times, students review notes, write assignments, memorize important points and
revising notes for tests and exams (non-parallel).

In study times, students review notes, write assignments, memorize important points and revise
notes for tests and exams (parallel).

A good perspective employer is usually looking for an employee who is neat, intelligent and who
doesn’t lie (non-parallel).

A good perspective employer is usually looking for an employee who is neat, intelligent and
loyal (parallel).

He sat down at his desk and begins to write (non-parallel).

He sat down at his desk and began to write (parallel).

A good student is a high achiever, a close follower of rules, participates actively, punctual, a
good listener in the class, an effective organizer of materials and a hard worker (non-parallel).

A good student is a high achiever, a close follower of rules, an effective participant, a good
listener in the class, an effective organizer of materials, an excellent time keeper and a hard
worker (parallel).
A good student performs well academically, follows university rules, participates actively, pays
attention in class, organizes materials well, arrives on time and studies hard outside the class
(parallel).

A good student is intelligent, well-behaved, active in class, attentive, organized, punctual and
hard-working (parallel).

The report was clear, concise and has so many information in it (non-parallel).

The report was clear, concise and informative (parallel).

The specific duties of a proposal writer involves: defining the problem, describing the solution,
establishing schedule and responsible for budget (non-parallel).

The specific duties of a proposal writer involves: defining the problem, describing the solution,
establishing schedule and planning the budget (parallel).

The student was enthusiastic, cooperative and know the material very well (non-parallel).

The student was enthusiastic, cooperative and knowledgeable/outstanding/ equipped (parallel).

Mesfin likes swimming, hiking and to fishing (non-parallel).

Mesfin likes swimming, hiking and fishing (parallel).

You must repair the circuit or it has to be replaced (non-parallel).

You must repair the circuit or replace it (parallel).

The circuit has to be repaired or replaced by you (parallel).

The teacher wanted to know which country we came from and our future goals (non-parallel).

The teacher wanted to know which country we came from and what our future goals were
(parallel).

This report is an overview of the processes involved, the problems encountered and how they
were solved (non-parallel).

This report is an overview of the processes involved, the problems encountered and the solutions
devised (parallel).

Activity

Identify the sentence with non-parallel construction and rewrite it.

1. The recent films are clever, well-acted, and have a lot of humor.
2. Writing is faster than to print
3. To read a foreign language is easier than speaking it
4. The duties of the secretary are to receive visitors, opening mails, and she types letters
5. The new cars are tasted for speed, comfort, and if they are safe.
6. Fractions can be changed to decimals, and decimals can change to fractions.
Choppy Sentences
A choppy sentence is a sentence is a sentence that is too short. Although short sentences can be
effective, over-use of them is considered as poor style in academic writing.
Wind is an enduring source of power. Water is also an unlimited energy source. Dams produce
hydraulic power. They have existed for a long time. Windmills are relatively new (ChS).
Both wind and water are enduring sources of power. . Dams produce hydraulic power for a long
time, but windmills are relatively new (corrected).
Our results were inconsistent. The program obviously contains an error. A revision of the
program is required (ChS).
A revision of the program is required because it produced inconsistent results (corrected).
Using Mechanics (Punctuation and Capitalization)

Mechanics helps to make sentences meaningful. Here we will be dealing with punctuation and
capitalization.

Punctuation

Punctuation marks are symbols used in writing to ensure that the written information is conveyed.
Although punctuation is mostly used to bring out the clarity of sentences, it is also used to bring out
meanings in words. In general, punctuation is an essential aid to correct the interpretation of the written
message. There are different types of punctuations marks used in English. The most common and
frequently used include period, comma, semi-colon, colon and quotation.

Period (full-stop)

 It is used at the end of declarative and imperative sentences.

e.g. Ocean water is always moving.

Abebe visited his mother last week.

Wait here until traffic stops.

Please carry these bags for me.

 It is also used after indirect questions.

e.g. Kebede asked me if I could stay.

Sara wanted to know whether the storm would be severe.

 It is used to show decimals or dollars and cents.

e.g. His wallet costs $6.26.

Comma

 It is used to separate items in a serious/list.

e.g. I need to buy pens, pencils and paper.

She lowered the shade, closed the curtain, turned off the light and went to bed.

I don’t know who runs the meeting, where it is and what time it is.

Tesfu is tall, plump, and dark-haired man.

  It is used before coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, for and yet)

e.g. Deliver the message immediately, and call Abebe before tomorrow.

Meron drank water, but she was still thirsty.

 It is used after introductory words, phrases and clauses.

Yes, the newspaper has arrived.

No,I think it is too early.

Astonished by the news, Fitsum stared at us.

To find the street you are looking for, turn left at the first stop sign.

Before she left, Almaz watered the plants.

Although she studies, she doesn’t pass the test.

 It is used to show non-defining clauses and appositives.

e.g. My sister, who wrote the story, has always been drawn to adventure.

The cup, which my brother gave me last year, is on the shelf.

Ato Kebede, her English teacher, comes from Dessie.

Venice, the famous Italian city, has over 150 canals.

 It is used to separate the direct speech from the rest of the sentences.

e.g. He said, “I will come tomorrow.”

“I won’t know what to do,” said Fikre, “if you leave me now.”

Semicolon

 It is used to join closely related clauses that are not connected by a coordinating conjunctions.

e.g. I knocked; no one came.

Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.

Abebe says the glass is half full; Almaz says it is half empty.

 It is used before conjunctive adverbs such as however, nevertheless, therefore, consequently,

accordingly, moreover, on the other hand, otherwise …etc.

e.g The weather was perfect; nevertheless, I stayed indoors.

Ali didn’t study; therefore, he failed the test.

It was hot; consequently, we went swimming.

Colon

 It is used to introduce items when they follow such as the following, as follows, these, a specific
number…etc.

e.g. We play on the following days: May 15, May 18 or May 21.

I need these boys: Abel, Assefa, Tigist, Konjit and Yonathan.

  It is used to separate the hour from minutes, the chapter from verse, the title from subtitle and the
volume and page number.

e.g. 3:20PM The Nation 34:8

Genesis 12:2

 It is used to introduce a direct quotation.

e.g. One of the most famous quotation is: “To be or not to be, that is the question.”

Quotation Mark

 It is used to enclose the exact words of a person.

Almaz asked, “May I borrow this tape recorder?”

Abebe said, “I have a permission to interview the coach.”

“Eat your bread,” said Abebe. “It is good for you.”

“This movie,” Rosa said, “is really exciting.”

How glad I was to say, “I agree’!

 It is used to enclose words as words.

e.g. “Receive” is had always been a difficult word to spell.

We can use it to enclose the title of short story, an article, an essay, a poem, a song, a radio or TV shows.

My favorite essay by Montaigne is “On Silence”.

The sixth and final episode, entitled “Today’s Environment,” was informative.

Capitalization

A capital letter is like a green light. It indicates that you can begin to move through a new sentence or a
new line of poetry.

Rules

 Capitalize the first word of every sentence.

e.g. Seble enjoys science-fiction, novels and stories.

What a beautiful girl she is!

Is Korea a part of Far East?

 Capitalize the pronoun I, both alone and in contractions.

e.g. There was one player I began to watch closely.

When I will get my turn?

 Capitalize the first word of each line of a poem

e.g. A bird come down the walk.

He didn’t know I saw;

He bit an eagle-worm in halves

 And ate the fellow, raw. (Emily Dickinson)

 Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation

e.g. He said, “It is too noisy here.”

“What is going on here?” Abebe asked.

 Capitalize proper pronouns such as Alumu, Beyene, Tigist, Semira, Abdi…etc.

 Capitalize titles showing a person’s professional rank or position such as Ato, W/zo, Sir, Mister,
Miss, Doctor, Senator, Mayor, Bishop, Attorney, Sergeant …etc when they are used as a part of
a person’s name.

 Capitalize East, West, South, and North when used as sections of country not as directions.

 Capitalize the names of days, months, holidays, nations, nationalities, races and languages.

 Capitalize abbreviations names of clubs, organizations, institutions and business firms.

 Capitalize the names of cities, states, countries, continents, rivers, seas, lakes, mountains …etc.

 Capitalize the first word of titles of books, newspaper, magazines, programs of television and
radio, articles, poems…etc and sub-titles.
Fundamentals of Paragraph Writing

Definition: - Paragraph is defined as a group of related sentences expressing and developing a basic idea, or a series
of related sentences so arranged as to explicate a single topic, a dominant idea or particular phase of thought. In
essence, a paragraph is an expanded sentence, a unit of thought; and a good test of the thought unit is that except for
a descriptive or a narrative paragraph, it may cast more or less in to a single sentence summing up the content of the
entire paragraph. (Morris H. Needleman, 1968).

A paragraph is a group of sentences related to one main idea, which is expressed in the topic sentence, usually the
first sentence of the paragraph. The topic sentence is a summary sentence, informing the reader of a paragraph’s
topic or main idea. All other sentences in the paragraph most help to show, prove, or explain that topic sentence
(Katherine Ploager, 2000).

A paragraph is usually defined as a group of sentences that deal with the same object or topic. It usually begins with
an indentation, and its length varies according to the complexity of the main idea to be developed. A typical
paragraph quite often has about one hundred words and seven to ten sentences in which every point in a paragraph
having a useful role to play in fulfilling the purpose of the paragraph (Solomon G/G, 1991).

Functions of Paragraph

 Introduce a topic/an idea

 Define a term

 Explain or describe a topic/idea/process

 Offer recommendation/solution to a problem

 Persuade someone to accept an idea/opinion

 Conclude a topic/an idea

Components of Paragraph

Paragraph is composed of

1. Topic Sentence-is a sentence that carries the main idea or central idea of the paragraph.
2. Details-are supportive sentences that can strengthen the topic sentences.
A paragraph is defined as group of sentences that deal with the same topic or subject. One of these sentences
identifies the topic for the reader and makes a statement of the same kind about the topic. This statement is called a
topic sentence. The other sentences in the paragraph give additional information about the idea stated in the topic
sentences. These other sentences are called supporting sentences. There are also other sentences that help to
conclude the paragraph in a logically and satisfying manner-such sentence/s are called terminators.

A good topic sentence

 Expresses the main idea of the paragraph
 Provides the reader with a clear understanding of what a paragraph is
 Gives direction to a paragraph that both the reader and writer can follow
 Often begins the paragraph or is found near the beginning of a paragraph
 States writer’s view/attitude towards the idea
 Suggests for the reader some of the details to be found in the paragraph

Positions of topic sentence

 At the beginning
 At the end
 At the middle
 At the beginning and end
Elements of a Paragraph
1. Introduction
2. Body
3. Conclusion

Introduction: - the introductory sentence is an opening sentence in a paragraph. This sentence identifies the topic
for the reader and makes a statement of some kind about the topic and enables a reader to establish his/her
expectations of what is to come. This sentence leaves the reader with the feeling that more information will follow.
The reader expects that there will be some description or explanation within the paragraph that tells how many,
which one, what kind of, when, where, how, why, etc. but what these always happen is when the introductory
sentence is a topic sentence [note that the introductory sentence in a formal paragraph is usually a topic sentence.]

Example

Suppose you want to write a paragraph about police work. The introductory part (topic sentence) of your paragraph
might look like:

Police officers perform many important services.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________

Notice that the above topic sentence is rather general as it stands. When we say general, the sentence by itself does
not tell enough about: what are these services? Why are they important? Who performs them? When and where are
they performed? And so on. But it introduces an overall idea that you want to discuss later in the paragraph.

Body-are supportive ideas that can illicit supportive issues by giving examples, enumerations, cause and effect,
comparison and contrast, process, …etc.

Conclusion-is the concluding or summarizing sentence that is used to recap the central idea.

Parts of a paragraph
1. Title/Topic-the main idea in short and brief words/phrases
2. Topic sentence-a sentence that carries the main or central idea
3. Supporting sentences-sentences that give additional information
4. Transitional signals-are linking words which help to create coherence
5. Concluding sentence-gives a brief summary or re-statement of the general idea
Activity
Identify the topic sentences for the following paragraphs
1. _________________________________________________________________. In the first instance, it affects
the health of the smoker causing breathing problem, lung cancer, tooth-decay and life-expectancy decline. Besides
this, the smoker is affected psychologically due to stigma and dependency with nicotine. It has also economical
effect caused by the cost to buy cigarette. Moreover, it has environmental problem since it brings pollution.
2. _____________________________________________________________. We collected red mud carefully
squashed the mud into different materials such as pan, pot, kettle, cups…etc. It requires patience. After we arranged
them, it needs to be dried. Then, we used them as playing instruments.

3. _______________________________________________________________. First of all, it can give students

the opportunity to read authentic language-that can be learned and used in speech and writing. In addition, students
can find-out a lot of facts about history, geography, politics, economy, culture and so forth. Therefore, reading is an
essential means of developing students’ awareness of language in use as well as traditions in different countries.

4._________________________________________________________________. It took place in the spring, on 2

April 2004, in our home town. I was bridesmaid to her and her husband. On the day of the wedding, I wore a long
blue dress and a gold shawl as well as a headdress in my hair. My sister looked very beautiful. She wore a traditional
white wedding gown and had a white and silver bead in her hair. Her husband wore traditional dress. After the
wedding ceremony, there was a party for members of both families and many friends. A special cake was cut and
the guests and the newly-married couple danced and celebrated the occasion of the marriage. I was proud to act as
bridesmaid for them. It was a wonderful day for me!

Underline the topic sentence of the following sentence.

5. Succeeding in colleges often is a challenge for students. Therefore, most colleges provide services designed to
help the students. For instance, peer-tutoring and personal counseling are the ones. However, colleges need to
provide more services. Moreover, students are given material supports to help them learn properly.

6. In the afternoon, I love to take a nap. I always feel sleepy after lunch. So I lie down on the sofa for a snooze. The
sofa is so soft and comfortable that I am a sleep in no time. I forget all of my problems for a while, like school work
and bills. When I wake up an hour later, I feel rested and ready to work again. I look forward to taking an afternoon
nap almost every day.

7. When I was about five years old, I remember doing a lot of things. We had large walnut trees growing behind our
house, and my sister and I climbed them in the summer. One time I fell out of one of the trees and landed on my
head, but I wasn’t badly hurt. We also played baseball in the backyard kids, and I remember we used my mother’s
dishes for home plate and the bases. We rode our bikes all over the north end of town; we raced through the valleys
after a rain, spattering water and mud on each other. The high school was only a block away, so we walked there in
summer, jumped the fence, and skated around the cement corridors until the custodian chased us out. Finally, there
was a big vacant lot beside our house where we played cowboys and Indians almost every Saturday. It seems like I
did nothing but play when I did nothing but play when I was young.

Types of paragraph

There are four types of paragraph. These are;

1. Expository Paragraph-a paragraph which is important to transmit factual information for readers.

2. Narrative paragraph- a paragraph which tells story that happened sometime in the past.

3. Descriptive Paragraph-a paragraph which creates an image/a picture under the mind of the readers using
different adjectives.

4. Argumentative/Persuasive Paragraph-a paragraph which is used to convince the readers through logical
reasoning.

5. Characteristics of a Good Paragraph

6. A. UNITY
 7. Unity is the ones of idea in a paragraph. In a unified paragraph, the controlling idea (topic sentence), every
sentence in the body and the concluding sentence all must relate to one main idea. It is achieved when each
sentence within a paragraph states or develops a single main idea.

B, Coherence

Coherence is the smooth flow of ideas in a paragraph. All the sentences in a coherent paragraph flow together; they
are not isolated from each other. In other words, the idea in the sentences stick tightly together and the gap between
the ideas is bridged smoothly.

 Pronouns: One way of fastening sentences and paragraphs together involves using reference
words that point back to an idea mentioned previously. Among many reference words that can be
used to tie one sentence to another or one paragraph to another are words like this, these, those,
and that.
 Synonyms: Using synonyms help move the reader from one thought to the next. Also the uses
of synonyms add variety and interest by avoiding needless repetition of the same words.
 Cohesions-they are devices that give life to our writing. Therefore, we have to use them
appropriately according to the logical relationships of ideas in our paragraph.
 Transition words-transitions are words, phrases and sentences that guide readers as they move
through a text and signal connections among ideas. They lead the reader in much the same way as
road signs guide a motorist.
Here are commonly used transitional words;

Time sequence or step: First, next, always, second, till, after, during, finally, later, meanwhile, soon, then,
suddenly, currently, now, afterward…

Spatial arrangement: Above, below, next to, in front of, besides, inside, outside, nearby, on the other side of, etc.
Emphatic order (least to most or most to least): most, above, all, especially, even more, etc.
To add a number of ideas together: additionally, in addition to, also, another, on top of, etc.
To show relationship: as matter of fact, as you can see, by the way, consequently, furthermore, however, in fact,
etc.

A. Adequate development:
Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and supported through evidence and details
that work together to explain the paragraph`s controlling idea.

Some English Transitional words (cohesive devices)

Addition-also, and, in addition, not only, besides, moreover, on the top of that, another reason, furthermore, too,
many, what is more…etc.

Cause and effect- consequently, on account of, accordingly, due to, since, as a result, hence, therefore, for this
reason, thus,…etc.

Sequence-first, second, then, after that, next, following it, before that, after that, earlier, later, finally…etc.

Comparison-similarly, similar to, related to, likewise, like, as, in like (similar) way, in the same way,…etc.

Contrast-but, in contrast, conversely, however, yet, on the contrary, nevertheless, while, unlike, although, though,
on the other hand, even though, despite, in spite of, otherwise…etc.

Result-so, for this reason, consequently, therefore, so…that, such…a/an that, hence, as a result,…etc.

Example-for example, specifically, as an illustration, include, such as, like, one example of this, especially, in
effect, for instance, to illustrate, in particular, i.e…etc.
Summary-in conclusion, thus, in short, to conclude, finally, at last, to summarize, to recap, therefore, in general,
over all …etc.

Time-when, while, since, ago, once, before, after, till, during, now, until, soon, later, meanwhile, earlier, presently,
at the same time,…etc.

Emphasis-indeed, in fact, in other words, above all, to repeat, again, as a matter of fact, obviously, unquestionably,
…etc.

Place-here, there, in front of, at the back, opposite to, below, across, behind, next to, below, near, around, beneath,
at left, at right, above, under, on top of,…etc.

Purpose-so that, in order to, so as to, that, to…etc.

Reason- because, because of, due to, seeing that, knowing that,…etc.

A good paragraph

 Has purpose-to explain/inform/argue/narrate/introduce/conclude

 Target audience-select language and content that go with knowledge, experience, educational level and
expectation of readers

 Has unity-all sentences within the paragraph should be related with the main idea

 Is complete-fully developed/explained and the reader should get a complete message

 Has coherence-sentences should be logically organized within the paragraph

 Has approximately used cohesions-uses linking words because they can give life to what we write

 Has appropriate length –varies depending on the purpose

Exercise

Order the following sentences coherently to have an effective paragraph.

1. A. When a solid changes to liquid, it is said melt.

B. When a gas changes back again into solid, it is said freeze.

C. At constant pressures, these changes often take place at fixed temperatures.

D. Most substances have three forms: solid, liquid and gas.

E. When a liquid changes to gas, it is said vapor.

____________________________________

2. A. So, I left the house through the back door.

B. Because of the rain, I was told to wear my coat to school.

C. There he was a few meters behind me with the unwanted coat.

D. But as I just reached the school gate, I heard my Dad calling my name.
E. However, I hated doing it since no other boy had one.

_____________________________________
3. A. For example, birds utter warning calls at the approach of danger.

B. For instance, animals’ cries are not articulate.

C. Other animals communicate with one another through cries.

D. However, this significantly differs from human language.

E. Apes utter different cries to express the anger or pleasure.

__________________________________________

4. A. So, I quietly got out of bed to see what it was.

B. It was in the middle of night when we were all fast asleep.

C. Suddenly, a piercing horrible noise comes from downstairs.

D. I could imagine the chilling fear this would cause everyone in the house.

E. But before I walked a step, I saw this huge dark creature holding me by the neck.

__________________________________________

5. A. That is why we take care of them.

B. Some animals are very useful to us.

C. Domestic animals serve us in many ways.

D. Such animals are called domestic animals.

E. For example, we give them food and shelter.

__________________________________________

6. A. Heat it on a gas stove.

B. Take some water in the kettle.

C. What do find after some time?

D. Steam comes out from the kettle.

E. When water is heated, it turns into steam.

__________________________________________

7. A. Like ants, they have two body sections.

B. Many people call them “white ants”.

C. Unlike termites, most ants are shiny and dark in color.

D. Termites also differ from ants in matter of colony life.

 E. However, their thorax is not clearly separated from the abdomen.

__________________________________________

8. A. Avoid any distraction once you start your work.

B. First, find a place that is quiet and comfortable.

C. Take some rest in between to relax your mind and body.

D. Then, have all the study materials you need ready.

E. You must be organized when you study.

__________________________________________

9. A. On her arm, there is a tattoo.

B. Julia has an intriguing history.

C. Physically, she is old and has a wrinkled face.

D. When she was 10, she became a drug addict.

E. But people know her for the big earrings she wore.

__________________________________________

10. A. In REM sleep, the body is quiet but the mind is active.

B. These movements can be observed beneath closed eyelids.

C. Others believe that it helps to rid of the brain of over stimulation.

D. Some think that REM sleep helps to form permanent memories.

E. During sleep, we experience periods of rapid eye movements (REM).

__________________________________________

Steps in writing Paragraph (Planning a Paragraph)

1. Select a topic/title

2. Specify the title or topic to particular context

3. Derive a topic sentence

4. List down the supportive sentences

5. Choose the most important from the least important

6. Outline

7. Draft the first paragraph/write the first paragraph

 8. Check/proof-read/revise the first draft

9. Rewrite the final version

Techniques of Paragraph Development

There are different techniques that are used to develop paragraph: definition, exemplification, classification, cause
and effect, compare and contrast, process, narration, description and argumentation.

A. Definition

It is a process of explaining concepts or terms or ideas or giving meaning. It is a method of restricting, making clear
or identifying the meaning of a word/phrase.

Purposes of Definition

 To identify the scope or meaning of concept

 To avoid ambiguity (not to be interpreted in different way)

 To illustrate clearly the meaning that you intended to transmit.

There are three main types of definition: formal, naming and extended.

1. Formal

It is structured with concept + class + special features

e.g. Economics is a field of study which deals with how a society organizes its money, trade and industry.

A sociologist is a person who studies the nature and development of society & social behavior.

2. Naming

It is structured with class + special features + concept

e.g. A field of study which deals with how a society organizes its money, trade and industry is called economics.

A person who studies the nature and development of society & social behavior is named as a sociologist.

3. Extended

It is a method that gives more details by providing additional information and examples as well as the meaning of
the term. Two methods of expanding definitions are giving additional information and providing specific examples.

E.g. A disease is a medical problem which affects humans, animals and plants. It is often caused by protozoan,
bacterial, or viral infections. Good examples are malaria, meningitis and cancer.

Dictionary

A dictionary is a book which lists the words of language or subject and explains what they mean. It is organized in
alphabetical manner. Good examples of dictionaries are Oxford, Amharic-English, Business and Scientific
dictionaries.

Network

Network is a system which connects people and things. It facilitates sharing of information, equipment and/or
services. Examples include road, television, radio, internet and computer networks.

Optimism
Optimism is a quality of enabling people to take the most hopeful or cheerful view of matters possible. It occurs
when a person finds himself in an unfortunate situation and let himself become depressed over what has happened.
Instead he looks for what good there was in or may come out of the situation. The other kind of optimism is how one
looks at the future-he hopes that in the future he will obtain a better thing.

Activity

Write an effective paragraph using one of the following titles.

Love

Accountant

Education

University

Honesty

__________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________.

B. Exemplification

A technique used to support a controlling idea by giving example of what we mean. Examples can be either factual
or fabricated, but the purpose is to develop illustration.

Types of examples

1. Single key-example (one example)

2. Multiple examples (several)

3. Explanatory

Tourist attractions in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has many tourist attractions to be visited by foreigners and domestic people. Some of the tourist attractions
found in the northern part of the country includes Axum, Lalibela, Bahir Dar and Semein Mountains of Gondar. The
southern part of Ethiopia has many tourist sites like wild lives, lakes, parks, pillars of Konso and traditional tribal
people. Besides these, the eastern part has also tourist sites. For example, ‘Ertale’ is one incredible creature. The
western part has also many parks, rivers and Abay Dam. Moreover, there are also endemic animals such as Walia
Ibex, Semein fox, Nyala, and Gelada Baboon that are visited by many tourists. Many hotels, resorts and restaurants
have been built to accommodate visitors, especially in most popular tourist areas. Swimming pools, sport facilities,
internet services and beauty salons including shops and markets are also found. In general, Ethiopia has many tourist
attractions.

Activity

Write an effective paragraph using one of the following titles.

 Characteristics of Effective persons

Habitats of Wild animals

Incomes of some Developing countries

__________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________.

C. Classification

It is a process of putting people or things into a group according to characteristics they have in common. It explains
how several things are similar because of one or more characteristics they have in common or discusses how things
differ from each other on the basis of one or more distinctions. It is a process of clustering or grouping or
categorization based on certain qualities.

Types of vegetables

There are main types of vegetables. These are root, green, salad and squash. Root vegetables have root like carrot
and potato. Green vegetable are vegetables in which their leaves are eaten such as cabbage and spinach. Salad
vegetables are used for salad like lettuce and tomato. Squash vegetables include zucchini.

Kinds Automobiles

Automobiles are grouped into three which are predominantly determined by their values of vehicle. These groups
are luxury car, family car and compact car.

Types Languages

Languages can be divided/classified/ categorized into three main categories. These are mother tongue, second
language and foreign language.

Categories of Sports

We can classify sports into four categories based on the place they are played. These are team sport, water sport,
field and track sports and winter sports.

Activity

Write an effective paragraph using one of the following titles.

Kinds of living things

Types of qualification

Types of education

__________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________.

D. Compare and contrast

Comparison and contrast shows similarities and differences between two or more persons or things or groups.

Sample paragraph

Ethiopia and Djibouti have some similarities and differences. The two countries are located in east Africa. Ethiopia
gains income from agriculture; whereas Djibouti gains its income from industry. Both of the countries are members
of African Union (AU). The principal exports of Ethiopia are coffee, chat, hide…etc. however, the principal exports
of Djibouti are semi-processed goods. The major trade partner of Ethiopia is China but the major trade partner of
Djibouti is France.

Activity

Write an effective paragraph using the following guidelines.

A.A Jimma

-capital of Ethiopia -zonal town

-higher population (4 million) -lower population (about 400,000)

-located at the centre of the country -located in SW Ethiopia

-has mild weather -has mild weather

-famous for higher institutions & big -famous for coffee production & wood production

industries

-bounded in four regions - bounded in four regions

______________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________.

E. Cause and effect

Cause=the reason

Effect=the situation created or the consequences

Cause-effect r/n ship effect-cause r/n ship

-caused -be caused by

-lead to -be due to

-result in -results from

-bring about -the result/effect of

-be responsible for

Sample Paragraph

What children eat can affect their health. Children who do not eat enough foods containing vitamin A can develop
serious nutritional disorders. Of the effects caused by Vitamin A deficiency, those involving eye diseases are the
most pronounced and widespread. Several thousand children become blind each year because of this dietary
deficiency which is most prevalent in poor, non-industrialized countries. Another result of Vitamin A is skin
dryness.

Causes and effects of deforestation

Deforestation can be caused by different things. One is the demand for fire or fuel. In addition, it is also due to
expansion of agricultural lands and for construction purposes. It is also needed for lumbering and timber production.
It is bring about overgrazing and hunting. Deforestation results in desertification, drought, migration, pollution and
flooding.

Activity

Write an effective paragraph using one of the following titles.

 Causes of population growth

 Causes and effects of poverty

 Causes of drunkenness

__________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________.

F. Process

A technique that is used to shows the steps or procedures to do something. Everything should be ordered in
chronology. There are sequence markers such as first, second, then, next, following that, after that, finally…etc.

Sample paragraph

Coffee ceremony

Coffee can be produced by using the following steps. First, extinguish fire and collect the necessary materials. Then,
wash the coffee beans. After that, roast the beans on the charcoal burner. Next, pass the beans around so that
everyone can appreciate the smell (aroma). Then, crush the beans with pestle and mortar. Next to this, boil water and
add the powder carefully into the coffee pot. Then, settle it for a while and then add sugar and stir it. Finally, serve it
in three rounds.

How to learn new vocabulary effectively

There are six basic steps in the process of learning vocabulary. First, look the meaning in a dictionary. Then, the
new word would be recorded in vocabulary notebook with the part of speech (noun, verb, adjective and adverb).
After that, an example sentence would be written for the new word to show the meaning in context. Next, the word
will be memorized for a short time. Following that, cover up the words and note them down from memory. Finally,
check your knowledge by comparing your note with the original version in the vocabulary notebook.

Activity

Write an effective paragraph using one of the following titles.

 How to conduct scientific research

 How to make cake

 How to write paragraph

 How to prepare Dorowot__________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________.
G. Narration
A narrative paragraph tells us a fictional story or gives information about a factual event, for example, personal
experience, historical or political events that happened sometime in the past. It is like a story-telling. It is concerned
with a sequence of happenings over a period of time. The author writes to record an event/serious of events usually
in the order they occurred or in chronology. Narratives can be either simple-narratives of facts/events-which have
occurred really such as diary, journals, autobiography, biography, anecdotes, adventures and historical incidents or
plotted-fictional which are the results of invention and ingenuity such as novel, short story, and novella. It can also
be personal or institutional.

Sample paragraphs

Yesterday, I wake up early in the morning to go to office. First, I got dressed smartly and had a breakfast with my
wife. Then, I got into my car and drove to work. As soon as I reached to office, I parked my car and walked to my
office.

Axumites settled in Ethiopia around 500B.C. In the first century A.D, the Axumite kingdom was an important power
which traded with Arabia, Persia and Rome. In the second century A.D, Axum expanded its empire to the Arabian
Peninsula. In the third century A.D, the Persian writer Manni wrote that Axum was one of the four great kingdoms
of the world together with Persia, China, and Rome. B/n 337 and 334 A.D King Ezana converted the empire to
Christianity.

Activity

Write an effective paragraph using one of the following titles.

My auto-biography

The reign of Atse Tewodros

__________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________.

Description
It is a technique that is used to create picture or image in the mind of the readers by using descriptive adjectives. We
can describe people, things, places and processes.

A. Describing People
Words used for physical Appearance
Height: tall, short, tallish, giant, small
Weight: light, fat, slim, skinny, slender, over-weight, under-weight
Body: large, small, heavy, broad, frail, stocky, slim, thin, plump, fat, skinny, well-built
Skin tone: black, brown, pale, white, chocolate, creamy, glowing, silky, smooth, rough, dry, freckled, rosy, ruddy,
wrinkled
Facial Expression
Eyes: black, brown, bright, wide, blue, grey, green, sorrowful, tear-filled, gentle, sympathetic, warm,
compassionate, expressive, lively, twinkling
Eye shape and size: large, small, almond-shaped, round, slanted, squinty, crinkly
Nose: large, straight, wide, small, flat, turned-up
Ears: obvious, struck-out, large-cobed, small, pierced
Mouth: generous, thin-lips, fall, beam, grin, frown, grimace, scowl, full lips, pouting lips, pursed lips (puckered up)
Hair texture: wavy, curly, straight, spiky, stiff, buzzed, shaved, parted, combed, tamed, long, short, cropped
Lots of hair: thick, full, lustrous, bushy, bushy, coarse, wiry
Little hair: thin, bald, receding hairline
Treated hair: perm, dyed, bleached, highlighted, and weaved
Hair style: braids, ponytail, pigtails, bun, twist, bob, ringlets, flip, bangs, layered, feathered, chopped, frizzy,
Hair color: black, brown, blond, red, grey, white
Face shape: round, oval, square, wrinkles, freckles, pale, sun-tanned, heart, high forehead
Facial hair: beard, goatee, mustache, sideburns
Clothing
Cloth type: jeans, pants, shirt, skirt, sweater, dress, uniform, gown, jacket, coat, pullover, shorts, tight, pajamas,
costume, gloves, hat, cap, robe, vest, blazer, suit, trousers, ‘gabbi’, ‘shemma’, scarf
Cloth style: ironed, creased, expensive, casual, baggy, smart, long, combat, patterned, wool, cotton, polyester,
leather, denim, short, fitted, flared, sleeve, collared, scruffy, tidy, shabby
Shoes: leather, dirty, sporty, polished
Shoes type: boots, slippers, sandals,
Character or Personality
Brave, free-thinking, generous, mean, cruel, selfish, creative, considerate, creative, considerate, intelligent, hard-
working, optimistic, pessimistic, active, critical, clever, stupid, shy, quiet, lazy, trustworthy, aloof, imaginative,
ambitious, witty, silly, cynical, sane, blunt, conservative, self-confident, passionate, emotional, charming,
extravagant, skeptical, naïve, pompous, moody, friendly, worried, careful, aggressive, independent, curious,
cheerful, worried, secretive, broad-minded, loyal, tolerant, clumsy, stubborn, careful, sensitive, crafty, trusting,
boring, controlled, introvert, extrovert, assertive, sociable, democratic, autocrat, brainy, brilliant

Sample paragraph

I am going to describe a girl who is walking before me face to face. She is five feet tall, her face is white, and her
hair is long. She is not thin and she is not fat. She has a normal body. She wears jeans with tight and sporty shoes.
She is confident and broad-minded woman.

She is very beautiful, her hair is dark and her eyes are black in color. Her face looks like a moon in the middle in the
middle of the sky. She walks smoothly. When she walks, you think that she is dancing. When she talks, you think
she is singing. When she smiles, you think she the light of the sun is coming.

B. Describing Places

Places can be described in bird’s eye view or pedestrian’s view.

Sample Paragraph
Harar

My favorite place in Ethiopia is Harar in the east of the country. It is the centre of Muslim and situated
approximately 1800m altitude. For this reason, the climate is temperate. There are many amenities in Harar,
including cafes, restaurants, shops, markets, churches, mosques, and tourist attractions such as Rimbaud House, the
old town and Harar Beer Factory. The Muslim influence is strong in Harar. People communicate in different
languages, for example, Harari and Afan Oromo. The atmosphere in the town is lively and busy. To sum up, the
climate, facilities and atmosphere make Harar the best town foe me in Ethiopia!

C. Describing Objects

-material made of -color

-shape -dimension

-size -appearance

-components

-use

A Drum

A drum consists of a cylindrical wooden frame and two circular plastic or animal skins fitted over each end. It is
used as a musical instrument. The musician beats the skin with his hands or special sticks.

Activity

Write an effective paragraph using one of the following titles.

My best friend

My bag

My dorm

My university__________________

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________________________________.

Persuasion

Explains the ways things should be or should not be; you emphasize opinion. It requires imagination and
speculation. It requires persuading the reader by putting facts or opinions.

Steps

 Stating the opponents view

 Stating the arguments of the opponents idea

 Refusing the opponent’s view-show the opponent’s argument is wrong

  Stating your personal view

 Stating your arguments (claims as strong as possible)

 Concluding remarks in relation to your argument

Sample paragraph

Laws, certainly, should dictate where people can smoke. In fact, I support laws that allow smoking only in one’s
own home or private office. For one thing, scientific research clearly proves that smoking not only harms the health
of the smokers, it also harms the health of non-smokers around them. Wives and children of smokers, for example,
have been found to have more instances of lung cancer, ear and throat infections, asthma than wives and children of
non-smokers. For another thing, non-smokers must unjustly pay for the consequences of smoking, such as fires and
increased costs of ventilation. Unfortunately, we cannot depend on smokers to be considerate and respectful of the
health and pocket books of those around them. In my opinion, for the good of the society, we need laws to tell
smokers when and where to smoke.

Activity

Write an effective paragraph using one of the following topic sentence.

Women are inferior to men

Country life is better than city life

Drinking alcohol is evil

Abortion should be banned/encouraged

Motorcycles are preferable to cars

Carelessness is the cause of many accidents

Intelligence is affected by environment

__________________

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Revision Exercises-1
I. Topic sentence Identification
1. _______________________________________________. He was only five when his parents forced to
leave the country and had to send him away to boarding school. This was difficult enough, but two years
later his father went bankrupt and Markos was sent to live with his grandparents. Then, at the age of
sixteen, he had a serious riding accident and had to spend six months in hospital.
2. ___________________________________________________. It is the third largest country in an area in
the world, after Russia and Canada. It is the third most populated country with a population about 301
million people. The USA is democratic country made up of 50 individual states and its capital is
Washington D.C. the United States of America is a vast and beautiful land. It is home to rich farmland,
 rivers and valuable minerals deposits. Examples of its natural resources include the Mississippi river, the
Rocky Mountains, the Hawaiian tropical islands and the wilderness of Alaska. Colonists from Europe
founded the USA more than 200 years ago. They created a new kind of society based on the ideals of
freedom and opportunity. To sum up, the USA has become the richest, most powerful nation in the world.

II. Identifying disrupters –select a sentence that doesn’t go with the topic sentence.

1. A nurse in a big hospital has many responsibilities.

A. There are many nurses working in the Black Lion Hospital
B. She has to feed her patients and make them comfortable.
C. She has to make sure that she gives the right medicine to the right patient.
D. A good nurse must keep up with medical science by reading professional journals.
2. The English auxiliary is one of the most complicated items of grammar for a foreign student to learn.
A. One reason is that English uses the auxiliary for so many different things: questions, negatives,
declaratives and tags.
B. The present perfect is also very difficult to understand.
C. Another problem is that the auxiliary does not always appear in positive sentences.
D. The German auxiliary is much easier to learn.

III. Coherence (Jumbled Sentences)-order the ff sentences to have an effective paragraph

1. Another thing which was different was my social life.

2. In general, compared to my previous existence, I suppose my life in America was much
healthier but it is not so much fun.
3. For one thing, I had to work much longer hours.
4. In Ethiopia, I had a very active social life, where as in America I found that there was a little
for me to do after work.
5. Many things changed when I left Ethiopia to go and live in America.
6. I often worked from six in the morning until eight of night.
The right order should be____________________________________

Cohesive Devices

Fill in the blank spaces by choosing the appropriate connectors or transitional signals.

Another reason but In addition

and Finally In conclusion
as well as For example One reason

Homework is an important part of learning process in the middle school. __________is that homework gives
students additional practice of skills covered in class. Middle school classes are too short to teach a new concept and
practice it sufficiently for students to master. Students need both guided practice in class and independent practice at
home. _________________for homework is that it provides time to complete longer assignments.
_______________, the ideal composition process allows time for students to think and to reflect on their ideas,
___________ time to revise and to proofread their writing. Also, reports and special projects often require research
that can’t always be done at school. _______________, since all students do not work at the same speed, giving
student’s time at home to finish work keeps them from falling behind. _____________, the most important reason
for homework is that it ensures review. New and old materials are practiced in daily assignments. Students do their
homework daily are well-prepared for tests and make better grades. _______________, not only is homework
essential to master new skills ____________ maintain previously learned skills, ____________ it also guarantees
constant review and provides time for longer assignments, as well as additional time for students who need it.
Students, do your daily homework, make better grades and learn more.

IV. Paragraph Analysis

Reference sources
There are two main types of reference sources. These are dictionaries and encyclopedias. Both are books or
computer data which contain information. Like dictionaries, encyclopedias are arranged in alphabetical order. A
dictionary normally lists the words of a language or subject and explains what they mean where as encyclopedia
provides factual details about the content of areas of knowledge. The two reference sources also differ in language
because some dictionaries are bilingual, unlike encyclopedias which normally contain subject information in one
particular language. Africa is becoming developed nowadays throughout the world in agriculture, services,
industries and trade. Examples of dictionaries are ‘Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of English’, Amharic-
English Dictionary and Business Dictionary. Good examples of encyclopedias include ‘Encyclopedia Britannica’,
‘Encyclopedia of World Literature’, ‘Economics Encyclopedia’ and Geographical Encyclopedia’.

1. Which one is the topic sentence?_____________________________________________

2. How many supportive details are there in the paragraph? __________
3. Does the paragraph have irrelevant sentences? Which one? ________________________
4. Which type of paragraph is used to develop it? ____________________
5. Which paragraph development technique is used here? _____________________
6. Can you draw the position of the topic sentence? ___________________
7. Mention some of the linking/transitional words used. __________________________

Revision-2

I. Faulty Sentences

Identify the type of faulty (misplaced, dangling, SV-agreement errors, pronoun-antecedent agreement error and faulty
parallelism) and rewrite them.

1. Cheating on exam, F grade was awarded for the student.

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2. A man and his dog ran around the building with a red leather collar.
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3. While crossing the forest, a lion was seen.
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4. Fantu likes swimming, dancing, bicycling and to read fiction.
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5. Everyone knows their responsibilities in the club.
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6. Not only the president but also the workers was clear about the conference.
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7. The employer is looking for employee who is neat, patient and who is always true.
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8. The manager, with the cabinets, are coming to visit us.
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9. Either Kebede or Ayalnesh had forgotten their bag in the library.
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10. Three dollars are the fee of this cake.
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II. Transitional Signals

Complete the following paragraph by choosing the appropriate cohesive devices below.

The first In general such as because However

The last The second so that Therefore Like
 Similarities and Difference b/n Football and Athletics
Football and athletics have some similarities and differences. ___________ similarity is both are types of field and track
sports. ___________ similarity is that both are looked by many people. _____________ similarity is that both are practiced
with suitable clothes and shoes. ___________ athletics, football has coaches and referees _____________ everyone works
along the rules and regulations of the sports. Many people like these sports ___________ they can make everyone impressed
unintentionally or intentionally. Athletes ___________ Haile Gebreselassie and Derartu are liked by Ethiopians.
____________ everyone is giving support for them. There is difference b/n football and athletics. Football is practiced with
ball; ______________, athletics is simply running without ball or any materials. __________, there are some similarities
and difference b/n football and athletics.

III. Coherence
Order the following sentences to make a coherent paragraph.
A. Overall, an effective essay has three parts: introduction, body and conclusion.
B. The conclusion summarizes the main points in short and precise manner.
C. An effective essay is composed of three parts- these are introduction, body and conclusion.
D. The body gives detailed information through exemplification and extended explanation.
E. The introduction gives brief information on the topic to be discussed in the essay.

The right order is ____________________________

IV. Paragraph Analysis

Read the following paragraph carefully and answer the questions that follow it.

Adults visit amusement parks for several reasons. For one thing, an amusement park is a place where it is acceptable to eat much
food. At the park everyone is drinking soda and eating popcorn and ice-cream. No one seems to be on a diet, and so buying all
the food you can eat is a guilt-free experience. Another reason is people want to prove themselves. They want to visit the park
that the newest and scariest ride to feel courageous and adventures without taking much of a risk. The final reason people visit
amusement parks is to escape from everyday pressures. Titanic is the most known film in the world once upon a time. When
people are visiting attractive places, they are not thinking their personal problems or all worries are rejected and instead they
refresh their mind.

1. Write an appropriate topic/ title. ____________________________________________

2. How many supporters are provided in the paragraph? _______________
3. Which type of paragraph it is? __________________________
4. What is the technique used to develop it? ____________________________
5. Which one is the irrelevant sentence? ________________________________________
6. Mention some of the transitional signals. ______________________________________
7. Draw the position of the topic sentence. ________________________
V. Paragraph Writing

Write a coherent and an effective paragraph selecting one of the following topics.

My Auto-biography
How to prepare a good tea
The Course I like most
Describing My Friend

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Revision-3
I. Faulty Sentences

Identify the type of faulty (misplaced, dangling, SV-agreement errors, pronoun-antecedent agreement error and faulty
parallelism) and rewrite them.

1. When he saw the accident.

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2. Abebe wandered in the forest nobody could find him.
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3. They nearly gave him 600 birr for a vacation.
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4. Abel likes singing, drumming or he will play the guitar.
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5. While dancing with Meron, the door was shut.
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6. Every member of the club are expected to return the evaluation paper.
________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. It a foggy day.
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8. You can use this form to apply or if you want to change your status.

Addis Ababa Medical & Business College Test 2 for Ho, Bsc. Nursing, & Midwife Students
Name__________________________Dep._________________ID No._______________
II. Paragraph Analysis

Read the following paragraph carefully and answer the questions that follow it.

One way of classifying sports is according to where they take place. There are three categories: on-land, in-water and on-air
sports. Sports that are played on land can then be subdivided on the basis of whether or not they need a special, purpose-built
area. For example, tennis is normally played on a court while some running races such as marathon can use existing roads and
tracks. Water sports can be categorized in the same way. Swimming and water polo, for instance, usually takes place in a
swimming-pool, while sailing is practiced on rivers and in an open area. But this supervision doesn’t apply to sports which take
place in the air such as hang-gliding and sky dividing which doesn’t use a specially constructed area.

1. Write an appropriate topic/ title. ____________________________________________

2. How many supporters are provided in the paragraph? _______________
3. Which type of paragraph it is? __________________________
4. What is the technique used to develop it? ____________________________
5. Which one is the irrelevant sentence? ________________________________________
6. Mention some of the transitional signals. ______________________________________
 7. Draw the position of the topic sentence. ________________________

III. Paragraph Writing

Write an effective and a coherent paragraph using the following topic or title and lists/ outlines with 150 words. Include
all the lists or outlines on the space provided (5 Marks)

Uses of Minerals

 raw materials for a variety of manufacturing industries

E.g. iron, copper, tin, etc.
 source of energy-used to run machinery
Examples: coal, petroleum and natural gas
 for making fertilizers
Examples: phosphates, sulphur, potash, nitrates, etc.
 in building constructions
Examples: limestone, marble, granite and clay
 for aesthetic purposes-examples: silver and platinum and for ornamental purposes-examples include diamond, gold, etc.
Uses of Minerals
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ESSAY WRITING

An essay is an extended form of writing on a particular topic/subject. It requires writing several

paragraphs that support a single point or central idea. Here, the writer has ample opportunity to
develop his/her ideas in detail when compared with paragraph which limits a writer to develop
only one major idea.

Components of an Essay

Essay has two basic components. These are thesis statement and supportive details.

A. Thesis statement-is a statement that carries the controlling or central idea of the essay

B. Supportive paragraphs-are paragraphs that can strengthen the thesis statement by

explaining or giving examples.

Parts of an essay

An essay consists of:

A. Introductory paragraph-introduces the reader about a subject/topic. The reader will be

made to know why the writer writes on that specific topic and what points would be
included in the essay.

B. Developing paragraph-develops major ideas of the essay-one major idea in a paragraph

and it can be divided into paragraphs and

C. Terminating paragraph-ends the essay by concluding or summarizing the main points,

making generalizations and/or by making some recommendations which the writer thinks
should be done or followed.

The difference b/n paragraph and essay

Paragraph Essay

-has a topic sentence -has a thesis statement

-the topic sentence introduces the main idea of -the introductory paragraph introduces the
the paragraph main idea(s) of the paragraph

-supportive sentences develop the paragraph -supportive paragraphs develop the essay

-concluding sentence ends the paragraph -the concluding sentences ends the essay

Steps to write an essay

The following steps are very essential while writing an essay.

1. Choose a subject or title that interests you.

2. Limit the subject/title to be managed in space and time at the disposal

3. Determine your aim of writing

4. Consider your audiences’ needs

5. Select the technique of essay development

6. Gather materials and make preliminary notes

7. Organize your materials in a coherent way

8. Prepare an outline in a logical order

9. Write the first draft

10. Check for errors