Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

MODULE – 3

Embedded System Components

Syllabus: Embedded System Components:

Embedded Vs General computing system, History of embedded systems, Classification of
Embedded systems, Major applications areas of embedded systems, purpose of embedded systems
Core of an Embedded System including all types of processor/controllers, Memory, Sensors,
Actuators, LED, 7 segment LED display, stepper motor, Keyboard, Push button switch.

What is Embedded System?

An embedded system is a combination of 3 types of components: a. Hardware b. Software c.

Mechanical Components and it is supposed to do one specific task only.

Or

An Electronic/Electro mechanical system which is designed to perform a specific function and is a

combination of both hardware and firmware (Software)

E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air Conditioners, Automotive Control
Units, Set Top Box, DVD Player etc…

Embedded System & General-Purpose Computing system

➢ The Embedded System and the General-purpose computing system are at two extremes.

➢ The embedded system is designed to perform a specific task whereas as per definition the general-
purpose computer is meant for general use. It can be used for playing games, watching movies,
creating software, work on documents or spreadsheets etc.

➢ Following are certain specific points that differentiates between embedded systems and general-
purpose computers:

General Purpose Computing System Embedded System

A system which is a combination of a generic hard A system which is a combination of

Purpose Operating System for executing a variety special purpose hardware and
embedded OS for executing a
specific set of applications
Contains a General Purpose Operating System May or may not contain an operating
(GPOS) system forfunctioning

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

Applications are alterable (programmable) by The firmware of the embedded system is pre-
the user (It is possible for the end user to re- programmed and it is non-alterable by the
install the operating system, and also add or end-user (There may be exceptions for system
remove userapplications) supporting OS kernel image flashing through
special hardware settings)

Performance is the key deciding factor in Application-specific requirements (like

the selection of the system. Always, performance, power requirements,
‘Faster is Better’ memory usage, etc.) are the key deciding
factors
Less/not at all tailored towards reduced Highly tailored to take advantage of the power
operating power requirements, options for saving modes supported by the hardware and the
different levels of power management operating system

Response requirements are not time-critical For certain category of embedded systems
like mission critical systems, the response
time requirement is highly critical

Need not be deterministic in execution Execution behavior is deterministic for

behavior certaintypes of

embedded systems like ‘Hard Real Time’ systems

Classification of Embedded Systems

It is possible to have classifications for embedded systems, based on different criteria. Some of the
criteria used in the classification of embedded systems are:

• Based on generation

Complexity & performance requirements

• Based on deterministic behavior

• Based on triggering

Based on generation
[Link] Generation :

• Early embedded systems were built around 8-bit microprocessors like 8085 and Z80 and 4-bit
microcontrollers.
• Simple in hardware circuits with firmware developed in assembly code.

• E.g.: Digital telephone keypads, stepper motor control units, etc.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

2. Second Generation:

• Embedded systems built around 16-bit microprocessors and 8-bit or 16-bit microcontrollers.
• Instructions set were much more complex and powerful than the first generation.
• Some of the second generation embedded systems contained embedded operating systems for
their operation.
• E.g.: Data acquisition systems, SCADA systems, etc.

3. Third Generation :

• Embedded systems built around 32-bit microprocessors and 16-bit microcontrollers.

• Application and domain specific processors/controllers like Digital Signal Processors (DSP) and
Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) came into picture.
• The instruction set of processors became more complex and powerful and the concept of
instruction pipelining also evolved.
• Dedicated embedded real time and general-purpose operating systems entered into the
embedded market.
• Embedded systems spread its ground to areas like robotics, media, industrial process control,
networking, etc.

4. Fourth Generation:

• The advent of System on Chips (SoC), reconfigurable processors and multicore processors are
bringing high performance, tight integration and miniaturization into the embedded device market.
• The SoC technique implements a total system on a chip by implementing different
functionalities with a processor core on an integrated circuit.
• They make use of high performance real time embedded operating systems for their functioning.
• E.g.: Smart phone devices, Mobile Internet Devices (MIDs), etc.

5. Next Generation:

• The processor and embedded market is highly dynamic and demanding.

• The next generation embedded systems are expected to meet growing demands in the
market.

Classification Based on Complexity and Performance:

• Small-Scale Embedded Systems

• Medium-Scale Embedded Systems
• Large-Scale Embedded Systems

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

1. Small-Scale Embedded Systems

• Simple in application needs and the performance requirements are not time critical. E.g.: An
electronic toy
• Usually built around low performance and low cost 8-bit or 16-bit
microprocessors/microcontrollers
May or may not contain an operating system for its functioning.

2. Medium-Scale Embedded Systems

• Slightly complex in hardware and firmware (software) requirements.

• Usually built around medium performance, low cost 16-bit or 32- bit
microprocessors/microcontrollers or digital signal processors.
Usually contain an embedded operating system either general purpose or real time operating system)
for functioning.

3. Large-Scale Embedded Systems

• Highly complex in hardware and firmware (software) requirements.

• They are employed in mission critical applications demanding high performance.
• Usually built around high performance 32-bit or 64-bit RISC processors/controllers or
Reconfigurable System on Chip (RSoC) or multi- core processors and programmable logic devices.
• May contain multiple processors/controllers and co-units/hardware accelerators for offloading
the processing requirements from the main processor of the system.
• Decoding/encoding of media, cryptographic function implementation, etc. Are examples of
processing requirements which can be implemented using a co-processor/hardware accelerator?
• Usually contain a high-performance real-time operating system (RTOS) for task scheduling,
prioritization and management.

Classification Based on Deterministic Behavior:

• Applicable for ‘Real Time’ systems.

• The application/task execution behavior can be either deterministic or non-deterministic.
• Based on the execution behavior, real time embedded systems are classified into Hard Real
Time and Soft Real Time systems.

Classification Based on Triggering:

• Embedded systems which are ‘Reactive’ in nature (like process control systems in industrial
control applications) can be classified based on the trigger.
• Reactive systems can be either event-triggered or time-triggered.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems

1. Consumer electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.

2. Household appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, refrigerators, microwave
oven, etc.
4. Home automation and security systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, intruder detection alarms,
closed circuit television (CCTV) cameras, fire alarms, etc.
5. Automotive industry: Anti-lock braking systems (ABS), engine control, ignition systems,
automatic navigation systems, etc.
5. Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, handset multimedia applications, etc.
6. Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.
7. Computer networking systems: Network routers, switches, hubs, firewalls, etc.
8. Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines, etc.
9. Measurements & Instrumentation: Digital multimeters, digital CROs, logic analyzers, PLC
systems, etc.
10. Banking & Retail: Automated teller machines (ATM) and currency counters, point of sales
(POS), etc.
11. Card readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices, etc

Purpose of Embedded System

Each Embedded Systems is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks.
1. Data Collection/Storage/Representation
2. Data Communication
3. Data (Signal) Processing
4. Monitoring
5. Control
6. Application Specific User Interface

[Link] Collection/Storage/Representation
➢ Embedded system designed for the purpose of data collection performs acquisition of data
from the external world.
➢ Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation and transmission.
➢ Data can be analog or digital.
➢ Embedded systems with analog data capturing techniques collect data directly in the form
of analog signal whereas embedded systems with digital data collection mechanism
converts the analog signal to the digital signal using analog to digital converters.
➢ If the data is digital, it can be directly captured by digital embedded system.
➢ A digital camera is a typical example of an embedded System with data
collection/storage/representation of data.
➢ Images are captured and the captured image may be stored within the memory of the
camera. The captured image can also be presented to the user through a graphic LCD unit.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

[Link] communication
➢ Embedded data communication systems are deployed in applications from complex
➢ satellite communication to simple home networking systems.
➢ The transmission of data is achieved either by a wire-lin medium or by a wire-less
➢ medium. Data can either be transmitted by analog means or by digital means.
➢ Wireless modules-Bluetooth, Wi-Fi.
➢ Wire-line modules-USB, TCP/IP.
➢ Network hubs, routers.

[Link] (Signal) Processing

• The data (voice, image, video, electrical signals and other measurable quantities) collected by
embedded systems may be used for various kinds of data processing.
• Embedded systems with signal processing functionalities are employed in applications
demanding signal processing like speech coding, synthesis, audio video codec, transmission
applications, etc.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

[Link]

• Almost embedded products coming under the medical domain are used for monitoring.
• A very good example is the electro cardiogram (ECG) machine for monitoring the heartbeat of a
patient.
• The machine is intended to do the monitoring of the heartbeat.
• It cannot impose control over the heartbeat.
• The sensors used in ECG are the different electrodes connected to the patient's body.
• Some other examples of embedded systems with monitoring function are measuring instruments
like digital CRO, digital millimeters, logic analyzers, etc. Used in Control & Instrumentation
applications.

Fig: A patient monitoring system for monitoring heartbeat

5. Control

• Embedded systems with control functionalities impose control over some variables according to
the changes in input variables.
• A system with control functionality contains both sensors and actuators.
• Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in environmental variable or
measuring variable.
• The actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to the changes in input
variable to put an impact on the controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the specified
range.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

6. Application Specific User Interface

• Embedded systems which are designed for a specific application

• Buttons, switches, keypad, lights, bells, display units etc. are application specific user
interfaces.
• Mobile phone, Control units in industry applications are example of application specific user
interface.
• In mobile phone the user interface is provided through the keypad, system speaker, vibration
alert etc.

• Smart’ running shoes from Adidas – The Innovative bonding of Life Style with Embedded
Technology
• Shoe developed by Adidas, which constantly adapts its shock-absorbing characteristics to
customize its value to the individual runner, depending on running style, pace, body weight,
and running surface
• It contains sensors, actuators and a microprocessor unit which runs the algorithm for
adapting the shock-absorbing characteristics of the shoe
• A ‘Hall effect sensor’ placed at the top of the “cushioning element” senses the compression
and passes it to the Microprocessor
• A micro motor actuator controls the cushioning as per the commands from the MPU,
based on the compression sensed by the ‘Hall effect sensor.

Typical Embedded System

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

Embedded systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable such Microwave Oven
or to manipulate the state of some devices by sending some signals to the actuators or devices
connected to the output port system such as temperature in Air Conditioner, in response to the
input signal provided by the end users or sensors which are connected to the input ports. Hence
the embedded systems can be viewed as a reactive system.

The control is achieved by processing the information coming from the sensors and user
interfaces and controlling some actuators that regulate the physical variable. Keyboards, push
button, switches, etc. are Examples of common user interface input devices and LEDs, LCDs,
Piezoelectric buzzers, etc. examples for common user interface output devices for a typical
embedded system. The requirement of type of user interface changes from application to
application based on domain.

Some embedded systems do not require any manual intervention for their operation.
They automatically sense the input parameters from real world through sensors which are
connected at input port. The sensor information is passed to the processor after signal
conditioning and digitization. The core of the system performs some predefined operations on
input data with the help of embedded firmware in the system and sends some actuating signals
to the actuator connect connected to the output port of the system.

The memory of the system is responsible for holding the code (control algorithm and
other important configuration details). There are two types of memories are used in any
embedded system. Fixed memory (ROM) is used for storing code or program. The user cannot
change the firmware in this type of memory. The most common types of memories used in
embedded systems for control algorithm storage are OTP, PROM, UVEPROM, EEPROM and
FLASH. An embedded system without code (i.e. the control algorithm) implemented memory
has all the peripherals but is not capable of making decisions depending on the situational as
well as real world changes.

Memory for implementing the code may be present on the processor or may be
implemented as a separate chip interfacing the processor. In a controller based embedded
system, the controller may contain internal memory for storing code such controllers are called
Micro-controllers with on-chip ROM, eg. Atmel AT89C51.

Core of Embedded Systems

The core of the embedded system falls into any one of the following categories.
1. General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors
1.1. Microprocessors
1.2. Microcontrollers
1.3. Digital Signal Processors
2. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
3. Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
4. Commercial off the shelf Components (COTS)

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors

➢ Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/ controller based.
➢ The processor may be microprocessor or a microcontroller or digital signal processor,
depending on the domain and application.

Microprocessor:

➢ A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is capable of

performing arithmetic as well as logical operations according to a pre-defined set of
Instructions, which is specific to the manufacturer.
➢ In general, the CPU contains the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit and
Working registers Microprocessor is a dependent unit and it requires the combination of
other hardware like Memory, Timer Unit, and Interrupt Controller etc for proper
functioning.
➢ Intel claims the credit for developing the first Microprocessor unit Intel 4004, a 4 bit
processor which was released in Nov 1971
Developers of microprocessors.
Intel – Intel 4004 – November 1971(4-bit)
Intel – Intel 4040.
Intel – Intel 8008 – April 1972.
Intel – Intel 8080 – April 1974(8-bit).
Motorola – Motorola 6800.
Intel – Intel 8085 – 1976.
Zilog - Z80 – July 1976

Microcontroller:

➢ A highly integrated silicon chip containing a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and
General-purpose Register Arrays, On Chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage,
Timer and Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports
➢ Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set of Microprocessors
➢ Microcontroller can be general purpose (like Intel 8051, designed for generic
applications and domains) or application specific (Like Automotive AVR from Atmel
Corporation. Designed specifically for automotive applications)
➢ Since a microcontroller contains all the necessary functional blocks for independent
working, they found greater place in the embedded domain in place of microprocessors.
➢ Microcontrollers are cheap, cost effective and are readily available in the market
Texas Instruments TMS 1000 is considered as the world’s first microcontroller.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller

Microprocessor Microcontroller

A silicon chip representing a central processing unit A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains
(CPU), which is capable of performing arithmetic as well a CPU, scratchpad RAM, special and general purpose
as logical operations according to a pre-defined set of register arrays, on chip ROM/ FLASH memory for
instructions program storage, timer and interrupt control units and
dedicated I/O ports

It is a dependent unit. It requires the combination of other It is a self-contained unit and it doesn't require external
chips like timers, program and data memory chips, interrupt controller, timer, UART, etc. for its functioning
interrupt controllers, etc. for functioning

Most of the time, general purpose in design and operation Mostly application-oriented or domain-specific

Doesn't contain a built in I/O port. The I/O port Most of the processors contain multiple built-in I/O ports
functionality needs to be implemented with the help of which can be operated as a single 8 or 16 or 32 bit port or
external programmable peripheral interface chips like as individual port pins
8255

Targeted for high end market where performance is Targeted for embedded market where performance is not
important so critical (At present this demarcation is invalid)

Limited power saving options compared to Includes lot of power saving features
microcontrollers

General Purpose Processor (GPP) Vs Application Specific Instruction Set Processor

(ASIP)
➢ General Purpose Processor or GPP is a processor designed for general computational
tasks
➢ GPPs are produced in large volumes and targeting the general market. Due to the high-
volume production, the per unit cost for a chip is low compared to ASIC or other specific
ICs
➢ A typical general-purpose processor contains an Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and
Control Unit (CU)
➢ Application Specific Instruction Set processors (ASIPs) are processors with architecture
and instruction set optimized to specific domain/application requirements like Network
processing, Automotive, Telecom, media applications, digital signal processing, control
applications etc.
➢ ASIPs fill the architectural spectrum between General Purpose Processors and
Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs).

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

➢ The need for an ASIP arises when the traditional general-purpose processor is unable to
meet the increasing application needs.
➢ Some Microcontrollers (like Automotive AVR, USB AVR from Atmel), System on
Chips, Digital Signal Processors etc are examples of Application Specific Instruction Set
Processors (ASIPs)
➢ ASIPs incorporate a processor and on-chip peripherals, demanded by the application
requirement, program and data memory.

Digital Signal Processors

➢ DSP are powerful special purpose 8/16/32 bit microprocessor designed to meet the
computational demands and power constraints of today’s embedded audio, video and
communication applications. DSP are 2 to 3 times faster than general purpose
microprocessors in signal processing applications.
➢ This is because of the architectural difference between DSP and general purpose
microprocessors.
➢ DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution whereas general
purpose processor implement the algorithm in software and the speed of execution
depends primarily on the clock for the processors.
➢ DSP includes following key units:
o Program memory: It is a memory for storing the program required by DSP to
process the data.
o Data memory: It is a working memory for storing temporary variables
anddata/signal to be processed.
o Computational engine: It performs the signal processing in accordance with the
stored program memory computational engine incorporated many specialized

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

arithmetic units and each of them operates simultaneously to increase the

execution speed. It also includes multiple hardware shifters for shifting operands
and saves execution time. iv. I/O unit: It acts as an interface between the outside
world and DSP. It is responsible for capturing signals to be processed and
delivering the processed signals.

➢ Examples: Audio video signal processing, telecommunication and multimedia

applications. SOP(Sum of Products) calculation, convolution, FFT(Fast Fourier
Transform), DFT(Discrete Fourier Transform), etc are some of the operation performed
by DSP.

RISC vs. CISC Processors/Controllers:

▪ RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computing.

▪ All RISC processors/controllers possess lesser number of instructions, typically in the range
of 30 to 40.
▪ E.g.: Atmel AVR microcontroller – its instruction set contains only 32 instructions.

▪ CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computing.

▪ The instruction set is complex and instructions are high in number.

▪ E.g.: 8051 microcontroller – its instruction set contains 255 instructions.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

Harvard vs. Von-Neumann Processor/ControIIer Architecture:

Von-Neumann Architecture

➢ Microprocessors/controllers based on the Von-Neumann architecture share a single

common bus for fetching both instructions and data.
➢ Program instructions and data are stored in a common main memory.
➢ They first fetch an instruction and then fetch the data to support the instruction from code
memory.
➢ The two separate fetches slow down the controller's operation.
➢ Von-Neumann architecture is also referred as Princeton architecture, since it was
developed by the Princeton University.
Harvard Architecture

➢ Microprocessors/controllers based on the Harvard architecture will have separate data

bus and instruction bus.
➢ This allows the data transfer and program fetching to occur simultaneously on both
buses.
➢ The data memory can be read and written while the program memory is being accessed.
➢ These separated data memory and code memory buses allow one instruction to execute
while the next instruction is fetched ("pre- fetching").
➢ The pre-fetch theoretically allows much faster execution than Von-Neumann
architecture.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

Big-Endian vs. Little-Endian Processors/Controllers:

➢ Endianness specifies the order in which the data is stored in the memory by processor
operations in a multi byte system.

➢ Little-endian the lower-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest address,
and the higher-order byte at the highest address. (The little end comes first.)

➢ For example, a 4 byte long integer Byte3 Byte2 Byte1 Byte0 will be stored in the memory
as shown below.

➢ Big-endian means the higher-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest
address, and the lower-order byte at the highest address. (The big end comes first.)

➢ For example, a 4 byte long integer Byte3 Byte2 Byte1 Byte0 will be stored in the
memory as shown below:

Load Store Operation and Instruction Pipelining:

➢ The memory access related operations are performed by the special instructions load and
store.

➢ If the operand is specified as memory location, the content of it is loaded to a register

using the load instruction.

➢ The instruction store stores data from a specified register to a specified memory location.

➢ The concept of Load Store Architecture is illustrated with the following example:

➢ Suppose x, y and z are memory locations and we want to add the contents of x and y and
store the result in location z. Under the load store architecture, the same is achieved with
4 instructions as shown:

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

➢ The first instruction loads R1, x loads the register R1 with the content of memory location
x.

➢ The second instruction load R2, y loads the register R2 with the content of memory
location y.

➢ The instruction adds R3, R1, R2 adds the content of registers R1 and R2 and stores the
result in register R3.

➢ The next instruction store R3, z stores the content of register R3 in memory location z.

➢ The conventional instruction execution by the processor follows the fetch-decode-execute

sequence.

➢ The fetch part fetches the instruction from program memory or code memory.

➢ The decode part decodes the instruction to generate the necessary control signals.

➢ The execute stage reads the operands, perform ALU operations and stores the result.

➢ In conventional program execution, the fetch and decode operations are performed in
sequence. For simplicity let's consider decode and execution together.

➢ During the decode operation, the memory address bus is available and if it is possible to
effectively utilise it for an instruction fetch, the processing speed can be increased.

➢ Instruction pipelining refers to the overlapped execution of instructions – i.e., while the
current instruction is being decoded and executed, the next instruction will be fetched.

➢ If the current instruction in progress is a program control flow transfer instruction like
jump or call instruction, the instruction fetched is flushed and a new instruction fetch is
performed to fetch the instruction.

➢ Whenever the current instruction is executing the program counter will be loaded with the
address of the next instruction.

➢ In case of jump or branch instruction, the new location is known only after completion of
the jump or branch instruction.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

➢ Depending on the stages involved in an instruction (fetch, read register and decode,
execute instruction, access an operand in data memory, write back the result to register,
etc.), there can be multiple levels of instruction pipelining.

➢ Figure illustrates the concept of instruction pipelining for single stage pipelining.

Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs):

➢ Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) is a microchip designed to perform a
specific or unique application.
➢ Used as replacement to conventional general purpose logic chips.
➢ It integrates several functions into a single chip and there by reduces the system
development cost.
➢ ASIC consumes a very small area in the total system.
➢ Helps in the design of smaller systems with high capabilities/functionalities.
➢ Fabrication of ASICs requires a non-refundable initial investment for the process
technology and configuration expenses. This investment is known as Non-Recurring
Engineering Charge (NRE) and it is a onetime investment.
➢ If the Non-Recurring Engineering Charges (NRE) is borne by a third party and the
ASIC is made openly available in the market, the it is referred as Application Specific
Standard Product (ASSP).
o E.g.: ADE7760 Energy Meter ASIC developed by Analog Devices for Energy
metering applications.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

Programmable Logic Devices:

➢ Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-to-device interfacing, data
communication, signal processing, data display, timing and control operations, and almost
every other function a system must perform.

➢ Logic devices can be classified into two broad categories—fixed and programmable.

➢ The circuits in a fixed logic device are permanent, they perform one function or set of
functions—once manufactured, they cannot be changed.

➢ Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) offer customers a wide range of logic capacity,
features, speed, and voltage characteristics and these devices can be re-configured to
perform any number of functions at any time.

➢ Designers use inexpensive software tools to quickly develop, simulate, and test their
designs.

➢ Then, a design can be quickly programmed into a device, and immediately tested in a live
circuit.

➢ There are no NRE costs and the final design is completed much faster than that of a
custom, fixed logic device.

➢ Another key benefit of using PLDs is that during the design phase customers can change
the circuitry as often as they want until the design operates to their satisfaction.

➢ PLDs are based on re-writable memory technology to change the design, the device is
simply reprogrammed.

➢ Once the design is final, customers can go into immediate production by simply
programming as many PLDs as they need with the final software design file.

➢ The two major types of programmable logic devices are Field Programmable Gate Arrays
(FPGAs) and Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs).

➢ FPGAs and CPLDs:

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

Advantages of PLD:

➢ PLDs offer customers much more flexibility during the design cycle because design
iterations are simply a matter of changing the programming file, and the results of design
changes can be seen immediately in working parts.

➢ PLDs do not require long lead times for prototypes or production parts—the PLDs are
already on a distributor's shelf and ready for shipment.

➢ PLDs do not require customers to pay for large NRE costs and purchase expensive mask
sets—PLD suppliers incur those costs when they design their programmable devices and
are able to amortize those costs over the multi-year lifespan of a given line of PLDs.

➢ PLDs allow customers to order just the number of parts they need, when they need them,
allowing them to control inventory.

➢ PLDs can be reprogrammed even after a piece of equipment is shipped to a customer. The
manufacturers can add new features or upgrade products that already are in the field. To
do this, they simply upload a new programming file to the PLD, via the Internet, creating
new hardware logic in the system.

Commercial Off-the-Shelf Components (COTS):

➢ A Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) product is one which is used 'as-it is’.

➢ COTS products are designed in such a way to provide easy integration and
interoperability with existing system components.
➢ The COTS component itself may be developed around a general purpose or domain
specific processor or an Application Specific Integrated Circuit or a Programmable
Logic Device.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

Advantages:

▪ They are readily available in the market ,Cheap

▪ Developer can cut down his development time to a great extent.n
}

Memory:
➢ Memory is an important part of a processor/controller based embedded systems.

➢ Some of the processors/controllers contain built in memory and this memory is referred
as on-chip memory.

➢ Others do not contain any memory inside the chip and requires external memory to be
connected with the controller/processor to store the control algorithm. It is called off-chip
memory.

➢ Also some working memory is required for holding data temporarily during certain
operations.

Program Storage Memory (ROM)

➢ The program memory or code storage memory of an embedded system stores the
program instructions.

➢ The code memory retains its contents even after the power is turned off. It is generally
known as non- volatile storage memory.

➢ It can be classified into different types as shown:

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Masked ROM (MROM):

▪ Masked ROM is a one-time programmable device.

▪ Masked ROM makes use of the hardwired technology for storing data.

▪ The device is factory programmed by masking and metallization process at the time
of production itself, according to the data provided by the end user.

▪ Advantage – low cost for high volume production.

▪ Limitation - inability to modify the device firmware against firmware upgrades.

▪ Since the MROM is permanent in bit storage, it is not possible to alter the bit
information.

▪ Different mechanisms are used for the masking process of the ROM, like

▪ Creation of an enhancement or depletion mode transistor through channel implant.

▪ By creating the memory cell either using a standard transistor or a high threshold
transistor.

▪ In the high threshold mode, the supply voltage required to turn ON the transistor is
above the normal ROM IC operating voltage.

▪ This ensures that the transistor is always off and the memory cell stores always logic
0.

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) / (OTP):

• One Time Programmable Memory (OTP) or PROM is not pre-programmed by the

manufacturer.

• The end user is responsible for programming these devices.

• This memory has nichrome or polysilicon wires arranged in a matrix. These wires can
be functionally viewed as fuses.

• It is programmed by a PROM programmer which selectively burns the fuses

According to the bit pattern to be stored.

• Fuses which are not blown/burned represents a logic “1" whereas fuses which are
lown/burned represents a logic 0 .

• The default state is logic "1".

• OTP is widely used for commercial production of embedded systems whose

prototyped versions are proven and the code is finalized.

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• It is a low cost solution for commercial production.

• OTPs cannot be reprogrammed.

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM):

• Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) gives the flexibility to re-
program the same chip.

• EPROM stores the bit information by charging the floating gate of an FET.

• Bit information is stored by using an EPROM programmer, which applies high

voltage to charge the floating gate.

• EPROM contains a quartz crystal window for erasing the stored information.

• If the window is exposed to ultraviolet rays for a fixed duration, the entire memory
will be erased.

• Even though the EPROM chip is flexible in terms of re-programmability, it needs to

be taken out of the circuit board and put in a UV eraser device for 20 to 30 minutes.

• It is a tedious and time-consuming process.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read only Memory (EEPROM):

• The information contained in the EEPROM memory can be altered by using electrical
signals at the register/byte level.

• They can be erased and reprogrammed in-circuit.

• These chips include a chip erase mode and in this mode they can be erased in a few
milliseconds.

• It provides greater flexibility for system design.

• The only limitation is their capacity is limited (a few kilobytes) when compared with
the standard ROM.

FLASH:

• FLASH memory is a variation of EEPROM technology – It combines the re-

programmability of EEPROM and the high capacity of standard ROMs.

• FLASH is the latest ROM technology.

• Most popular ROM technology used in today's embedded designs.

• FLASH memory is organized as sectors (blocks) or pages.

• FLASH memory stores information in an array of floating gate MOSFET transistors.

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• The erasing of memory can be done at sector level or page level without affecting the
other sectors or pages.

• Each sector/page should be erased before re-programming.

• The typical erasable capacity of FLASH is 1000 cycles.

• E.g.: W27C512 from WINBOND is an example of 64KB FLASH memory.

Non-Volatile RAM (NVRAM):

• Non-volatile RAM is a random access memory with battery backup.

• It contains static RAM based memory and a minute battery for providing supply to the
memory in the absence of extemal power supply.

• The memory and battery are packed together in a single package.

• The life span of NVRAM is expected to be around 10 years.

• E.g.: DS1644 from Maxim/Dallas is an example of 32KB NVRAM.

Read-Write Memory/Random Access Memory (RAM):

• RAM is the data memory or working memory of the controller/processor.

• Controller/processor can read from it and write to it.

• RAM is volatile – when the power is turned off, all the contents are destroyed.

• RAM is a direct access memory – we can access the desired memory location directly
without the need for traversing through the entire memory locations to reach the desired
memory position (i.e. random access of memory location).

• This is in contrast to the Sequential Access Memory (SAM), where the desired
memory location is accessed by either traversing through the entire memory or through a
'seek' method. Magnetic tapes, CD ROMs, etc. are examples of sequential access
memories.

• RAM generally falls into three categories: Static RAM (SRAM), Dynamic RAM
(DRAM) and Non- Volatile RAM (NVRAM).

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

Static RAM (SRAM):

• Static RAM stores data in the form of voltage.

• They are made up of flip-flops.

• Static RAM is the fastest form of RAM available.

• Fast due to its resistive networking and switching capabilities.

• In typical implementation, an SRAM cell (bit) is realized using six transistors (or 6
MOSFETs).

• Four of the transistors are used for building the latch (flip-flop) part of the memory
cell and two for controlling the access.

• In its simplest representation an SRAM cell can be visualized as shown in the figure
below:

Fig: SRAM cell implementation

• This implementation in its simpler form can be visualized as two cross-coupled

inverters with read/write control through transistors.

• The four transistors in the middle form the cross-coupled inverters.

• This can be visualized as shown in the figure below:

Fig: Visualization of SRAM cell

•The access to the memory cell is controlled by Word Line, which controls the access
transistors (MOSFETs) Q5 and Q6.

•The access transistors control the connection to bit lines B & B\.

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• In order to write a value to the memory cell, apply the desired value to the bit control
lines (For writing 1, make B = 1 and B\ = 0; For writing 0, make B = 0 and B\ = 1) and
assert the Word Line (Make Word line high).
• This operation latches the bit written in the flip-flop.
• For reading the content of the memory cell, assert both B and bit lines to 1 and set the
Word line to 1.
• The major limitations of SRAM are low capacity and high cost.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM):

• Dynamic RAM stores data in the form of charge.

• They are made up of MOS transistor gates.
• Advantages – high density and low cost compared to SRAM.
• Disadvantage – since the information is stored as charge it gets leaked off with time
and to prevent this they need to be refreshed periodically.
• Special circuits called DRAM controllers are used for the refreshing operation.
• The refresh operation is done periodically in milliseconds interval.
• Figure below illustrates the typical implementation of a DRAM cell.
• The MOSFET acts as the gate for the incoming and outgoing data whereas the
capacitor acts as the bit storage unit.

Fig: DRAM cell implementation

• Table given below summarises the relative merits and demerits of SRAM and DRAM
technology.

SRAM Cell DRAM Cell

Made up of 6 CMOS transistors (MOSFET) Made up of a MOSFET and a capacitor

Doesn't require refreshing Requires refreshing

Low capacity (Less dense) High capacity (Highly dense)

More expensive Less expensive

Fast in operation. Typical access time is 10ns Slow in operation due to refresh requirements.
Typical
access time is 60ns. Write operation is faster than
readoperation.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

Memory Shadowing:
Memory Shadowing is a computer memory management technique where a copy of data
from a slower memory (like ROM) is loaded into a faster memory (like RAM) during
system startup. This allows the system to run code or access data more quickly because
accessing RAM is much faster than accessing ROM.

In simple terms:

• When a computer boots up, it may copy the BIOS (or firmware) from ROM into
RAM.

• Then, the system uses the RAM copy instead of directly accessing the slower ROM.

• This process is called memory shadowing or BIOS shadowing.

Why use it?

• Speed: RAM is much faster than ROM.

• Performance: Improves system performance by reducing delays in accessing

important system code.

Where is it used?

• Common in PC BIOS systems.

• Also used in embedded systems where startup speed matters.

• Generally, the execution of a program or a configuration from a ROM is very slow

(120 to 200 ns) compared to the execution from a RAM (40 to 70 ns).

• RAM access is about three times as fast as ROM access.

• Memory Shadowing is a technique adopted to solve the execution speed problem in

processor-based systems.

• In computer systems and video systems there will be a configuration holding ROM
called Basic Input Output Configuration ROM or simply BIOS.

• BIOS stores the hardware configuration information like the address assigned for
various serial ports and other non-plug 'n' play devices, etc.

• Usually, it is read and the system is configured according to it during system boot up
and it is time consuming.

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• In memory shadowing, a RAM is included behind the logical layer of BIOS at its
same address as a shadow to the BIOS.

• The first step that happens during the boot up is copying the BIOS to the shadowed
RAM and writes protecting the RAM then disabling the BIOS reading.

• RAM is volatile and it cannot hold the configuration data which is copied
from the BIOS when the power supply is switched off. Only a ROM can hold it
permanently.

• But for high system performance it should be accessed from a RAM instead of
accessing from a ROM.

Memory Selection for Embedded Systems:

• Embedded systems require a Program memory for holding the control algorithm or
embedded OS and the applications designed to run on top of it

• Data memory for holding variables and temporary data during task execution

• Memory for holding non-volatile data (like configuration data, look up table
etc) which are modifiable by the application

• The memory requirement for an embedded system in terms of RAM and ROM
(EEPROM/FLASH/NVRAM) is solely dependent on the type of the embedded system
and the applications for which it is designed.

• Lot of factors need to be considered when selecting the type and size of
memory for embedded system.

• For example, if the embedded system is designed using SOC or a microcontroller with
on-chip RAM and ROM (FLASH/EEPROM), depending on the application need the on-
chip memory may be sufficient for designing the total system.

• Consider a simple electronic toy design as an example.

• As the complexity of requirements are less and data memory requirement are
minimal, we can think of a microcontroller with a few bytes of internal RAM, a few
bytes or kilobytes of FLASH memory and a few bytes of EEPROM (if required) for
designing the system. Hence there is no need for external memory at all.

• A PIC microcontroller device which satisfies the I/O and memory

requirements can be used in this case.

• If the embedded design is based on an RTOS, the RTOS requires certain amount of
RAM for its execution and ROM for storing the RTOS image.

• Normally the binary code for RTOS kernel containing all the services is stored in a
non-volatile memory (Like FLASH) as either compressed or non-compressed data.

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• During boot-up of the device, the RTOS files are copied from the program storage
memory, decompressed if required and then loaded to the RAM for execution.

• A smart phone device with Windows mobile operating system is a typical example for
embedded device with OS.

• Say 64MB RAM and 128MB ROM are the minimum requirements for running the
Windows mobile device, extra RAM and ROM are needed for running user applications.

• There are two parameters for representing a memory:

1. Size of the memory chip – Memory density expressed in terms of number of memory
bytes per chip.

◦ Memory chips come in standard sizes like 512 bytes, 1024 bytes (1 kilobyte),
2048 bytes (2 kilobytes), 4KB, 8KB, 16KB, 32KB, 64KB, 128KB, 256KB, 512KB,
1024KB(1 megabytes), etc.

◦ While selecting a memory size, the address range supported by the processor
must also be considered. For example, for a processor/controller with 16 bit address
bus, the maximum number of memory locations that can be addressed is 216 = 65536
bytes = 64KB

◦ The entire memory range supported by the processor/controller may not be

available to the memory chip alone. It may be shared between I/O, other ICs and
memory.

2. Word size of the memory – The number of memory bits that can be read/written
together at a time.

◦ Word size can be 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, 32, etc.

◦ The word size supported by the memory chip must match with the data bus
width of the processor/controller.

➢ FLASH memory is the popular choice for ROM in embedded applications.

➢ It is a powerful and cost-effective solid-state storage technology for mobile

electronics devices and other consumer applications.

➢ FLASH memory comes in two major variants – NAND FLASH and NOR FLASH.

➢ NAND FLASH is a high-density low cost non-volatile storage memory, while NOR
FLASH is less dense and slightly expensive.

➢ NOR FLASH supports the Execute in Place (XIP) technique for program execution.

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o The XIP technology allows the execution of code memory from ROM itself
without the need for copying it to the RAM as in the case of conventional
execution method.

➢ It is a good practice to use a combination of NOR and NAND memory for storage
memory requirements, where NAND can be used for storing the program code and or
data like the data captured in a camera device.

➢ NAND FLASH doesn't support XIP and if NAND FLASH is used for storing
program code, a DRAM can be used for copying and executing the program code.

• NOR FLASH supports XIP and it can be used as the memory for boot loader
or for even storing the complete program code.

➢ The EEPROM data storage memory is available as either serial interface or parallel
interface chip.

➢ If the processor/controller of the device supports serial interface and the amount of
data to write and read to and from the device is less, it is better to have a serial
EEPROM chip.

➢ The serial EEPROM saves the address space of the total system.

➢ The memory capacity of the serial EEPROM is usually expressed in bits or

kilobits.512 bits, 1Kbits, 2Kbits, 4Kbits, etc. are examples for serial EEPROM
memory representation.

➢ For embedded systems with low power requirements like portable devices, choose
low power memory devices.

➢ Certain embedded devices may be targeted for operating at extreme environmental

conditions like high temperature, high humid area, etc.

➢ Select an industrial grade memory chip in place of the commercial grade chip for such
devices.

Sensors and Actuators:

• An embedded system is in constant interaction with the real world and the
controlling/monitoring functions executed by the embedded system are achieved in
accordance with the changes happening to the real world.

• The changes in system environment or variables are detected by the sensors connected
to the input port of the embedded system.

• If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose, the system will
produce some changes in the controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the
desired value.

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• It is achieved through an actuator connected to the output port of the embedded

system.
• A sensor is a transducer device that converts energy from one form to another for any
measurement or control purpose.
• E.g.: Temperature sensor, magnetic Hall Effect sensor, humidity sensor, etc.
• An actuator is a form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical) which converts
signals to corresponding physical action (motion).
• Actuator acts as an output device.
• E.g.: Stepper motor,LED,7segment display etc
I/O Subsystem:

• The I/O subsystem of the embedded system facilitates the interaction of the embedded
system with the external world.

• The interaction happens through the sensors and actuators connected to the input and
output ports respectively of the embedded system.

• The sensors may not be directly interfaced to the input ports, instead they may be
interfaced through signal conditioning and translating systems like ADC, opt couplers,
etc.

Light Emitting Diode (LED):

• Light Emitting Diode (LED) is an important output device for visual indication in any
embedded system.

• LED can be used as an indicator for the status of various signals or situations.

• E.g.: 'Device ON', 'Battery low' or 'Charging of battery’ conditions

• Light Emitting Diode is a p-n junction diode and it contains an anode and a cathode.

• For proper functioning of the LED, the anode is connected to +ve terminal of the
supply voltage and cathode to the -ve terminal of supply voltage.

• The current flowing through the LED must be limited to a value Below the maximum
current that it can conduct.

• A resister is used in series to limit the current through the LED.

• The ideal LED interfacing circuit is shown in the figure.

Fig: LED interfacing

• LEDs can be interfaced to the port pin of a processor/controller in two ways:

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• In the first method, the anode is directly connected to the port pin and the port pin
drives the LED. The port pin 'sources' current to the LED when the port pin is at logic
High (Logic ‘1’).

• In the second method, the cathode of the LED is connected to the port pin of the
processor/controller and the anode to the supply voltage through a current limiting
resistor.

• The LED is turned on when the port pin is at logic Low (Logic '0’).

• Here the port pin 'sinks' current.

• The 7-segment LED display is an output device for displaying alpha numeric
characters.

• It contains 7 LED segments arranged in a special form used for displaying alpha
numeric characters and 1 LED used for representing 'decimal point' in decimal number
display.

• The LED segments are named A to G and the decimal point LED segment is named
as DP.

• The LED segments A to G and DP should be lit accordingly to display numbers and
characters.

• The 7-segment LED displays are available in two different configurations, namely;
Common Anode and Common Cathode.

• In the common anode configuration, the anodes of the 8 segments are connected
commonly whereas in the common cathode configuration, the cathodes of 8 LED
segments are connected commonly.

• Figure illustrates the Common Anode and Cathode configurations.

• Based on the configuration of the 7-segment LED unit, the LED segment’s anode or
cathode is connected to the port of the processor/controller in the order 'A' segment to the
least significant port pin and DP segment to the most significant port pin.

• The current flow through each of the LED segments should be limited to the
maximum value supported by the LED display unit.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

• The typical value is 20mA.

• The current can be limited by connecting a current limiting resistor to the anode or
cathode of each segment.

• 7-segment LED display is used in low cost embedded applications like Public
telephone call monitoring devices, point of sale terminals,

etc.

Stepper Motor:
A stepper motor is an Electro-mechanical device which produces a discrete rotation when
an input voltage applied to it.

Stepper motors are widely used in Industrial Embedded System, Consumer Electronics
and Robotics control system.

Based on the winding used Stepper motor are classified as

• Unipolar

• Bipolar

A Unipolar stepper motor contains two windings per phase.

The direction of rotation (clockwise or anticlockwise) of a stepper motor is controlled by

changing the direction of current flow.

Current in one direction flows through one coil and current flows in the opposite direction
flows through the other coil.

It is easy to shift the direction of rotation by just switching the terminals to which the
coils are connected

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

A bipolar stepper motor contains single winding per phase.

For reversing the motor rotation the current flow through the windings is reversed
dynamically. It requires complex circuitry for current flow reversal.

Relay:
• Relay is an electro-mechanical device.

• In embedded application, the Relay unit acts as dynamic path selector for signals and
power.

• The Relay unit contains a relay coil made up of insulated wire on a metal core and a
metal armature with one or more contacts.

• Relay works on electromagnetic principle.

• When a voltage is applied to the relay coil, current flows through the coil, which in
turn generates a magnetic field.

• The magnetic field attracts the armature core and moves the contact point.

• The movement of the contact point changes the power/signal flow path.

• Relays are available in different configurations.

• Figure given below illustrates the widely used relay configurations for embedded
applications.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

Fig: Relay configurations

• The Single Pole Single Throw configuration has only one path for information flow.

• The path is either open or closed in normal condition.

• For Normally Open Single Pole Single Throw relay, the circuit is normally open and
it becomes closed when the relay is energized.

• For Normally Closed Single Pole Single Throw relay, the circuit is normally closed
and it becomes open when the relay is energized.

• For Single Pole Double Throw configuration, there are two paths for

• information flow and they are selected by energizing or de- energizing the relay.

Fig: Transistor based Relay driving circuit

• Most of the industrial relays are bulky and require high voltage to operate.

• Special relays called 'Reed' relays are available for embedded application requiring
switching of low voltage DC signals.

Push Button Switch:

• It is an input device.

• Push button switch comes in two configurations, namely 'Push to Make' and 'Push to
Break’.

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 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems BCO601

• In the 'Push to Make' configuration, the switch is normally in the open state and it
makes a circuit contact when it is pushed or pressed.

• In the 'Push to Break' configuration, the switch is normally in the closed state and it
breaks the circuit contact when it is pushed or pressed.

• The push buttons stay in the ‘closed’ (For Push to Make type) or ‘open’ (For Push to
Break type) state as long as it is kept in the pushed state and it breaks/makes the circuit
connection when it is released.

• Push button is used for generating a momentary pulse.

• In embedded applications, push button is generally used as reset and start switch and
pulse generator.

• The Push button is normally connected to the port pin of the host processor/controller.

• Depending on the way in which the push button interfaced to the controller, it can
generate either a ‘HIGH’ pulse or a 'LOW' pulse.

• Figure illustrates how the push button can be used for generating 'LOW' and 'HIGH'
pulses.

Fig: Push button switch configurations

Asst Prof, Dept of CSE(AI&ML), SVIT Bangalore