Metamorphic Rocks

Introduction
Metamorphic rocks are formed when pre-existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or older
metamorphic rocks) are transformed by heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids
without melting.
The word metamorphism comes from the Greek words:
 Meta – change
 Morph – form
Thus, metamorphism means change in form or structure of rocks.
Metamorphic rocks are widely distributed in mountain belts such as the Himalayas,
where intense pressure and temperature occur during tectonic movements.

Definition: Metamorphic rocks are rocks formed when existing rocks undergo
mineralogical, chemical, and structural changes due to high temperature, pressure, and
chemically active fluids without melting.
Examples include:
 Marble
 Slate
 Schist
 Gneiss

Mode of Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are formed through the process of metamorphism, which involves
several factors.
1. Heat (Temperature)
Heat is an important factor in metamorphism.
Sources of heat include:
 Magma intrusion
 Deep burial
 Radioactive decay
Heat causes recrystallization of minerals, forming new minerals stable under higher
temperatures.
Example: Limestone → Marble

2. Pressure
Pressure during metamorphism may be:
Lithostatic Pressure
Pressure exerted by overlying rock layers.
Directed Pressure
Pressure produced by tectonic forces during mountain building.
Directed pressure causes alignment of minerals, producing foliation.

3. Chemically Active Fluids

Hot fluids containing dissolved minerals may pass through rocks and cause chemical
changes.
These fluids accelerate metamorphic reactions and help in formation of new minerals.

Recrystallization
During metamorphism, minerals rearrange and grow into new crystal forms without
melting.
Example: Calcite crystals in limestone recrystallize to form marble.
Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are classified mainly into two types based on structure and
mineral arrangement.
1. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Definition: Foliated rocks show layered or banded structures caused by alignment of
minerals under directed pressure.
Characteristics
 Parallel arrangement of minerals
 Develops under strong pressure
 Shows foliation or banding
Examples

Rock Parent Rock

Slate Shale

Phyllite Slate

Schist Clay-rich rocks

Gneiss Granite or schist

These rocks are common in mountain belts like the Himalayas.

2. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Definition: Non-foliated rocks do not show layering or banding because minerals
recrystallize without alignment.
Characteristics
 Massive structure
 No mineral alignment
 Usually formed under uniform pressure
Examples

Rock Parent Rock

Marble Limestone

Quartzite Sandstone

Hornfels Shale
Properties of Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks have several distinctive characteristics.
1. Crystalline Structure
Metamorphic rocks usually have well-developed crystalline structures due to
recrystallization of minerals.
Minerals grow larger during metamorphism.
2. Foliation or Banding
Many metamorphic rocks show foliation, which is the alignment of minerals in parallel
layers.
Example:
 Schist
 Gneiss
3. Increased Hardness and Density
Metamorphic rocks are generally harder and denser than their parent rocks because
minerals recrystallize and become tightly packed.
Example:
Quartzite is harder than sandstone.
4. Absence of Fossils
Metamorphism usually destroys fossils due to high temperature and pressure.
Thus, fossils are rarely preserved in metamorphic rocks.
5. Formation of New Minerals
New minerals called index minerals may form during metamorphism.
Examples include: Garnet, Staurolite, Kyanite
These minerals help geologists determine temperature and pressure conditions of
metamorphism.
Importance of Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are important because they:
 Provide information about Earth's internal processes
 Occur widely in mountain belts
 Are used as building and decorative stones
 Contain important mineral deposits
Examples:
 Marble used in construction
 Slate used for roofing
Textures and Structures of Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed when pre-existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or older
metamorphic rocks) undergo changes due to heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids
without melting completely. These changes lead to the development of new minerals,
textures, and structures.
The study of metamorphic textures and structures helps geologists understand:
 The conditions of metamorphism
 Pressure and temperature environments
 Deformation processes
 Metamorphic history of rocks

Texture of Metamorphic Rocks

Definition: Metamorphic texture refers to the size, shape, arrangement, and orientation of
mineral grains in metamorphic rocks.
These textures develop due to recrystallization, mineral growth, and deformation
under high temperature and pressure.
Metamorphic textures are broadly divided into:
1. Foliated textures
2. Non-foliated textures

Factors Controlling Metamorphic Texture

1. Temperature
Temperature is one of the most important factors controlling metamorphism. It
provides the energy required for recrystallization and formation of new minerals.
Sources of Heat
The heat responsible for metamorphism may come from:
1. Geothermal gradient
2. Intrusion of magma
3. Radioactive decay
4. Friction during tectonic movement
Geothermal Gradient
Temperature increases with depth inside the Earth.
Average geothermal gradient: 25–30°C per kilometre
As rocks are buried deeper, they experience higher temperatures leading to
metamorphic changes.
Effects of Temperature
Temperature causes:
 Recrystallization of minerals
 Growth of larger crystals
 Formation of new mineral assemblages
 Destruction of unstable minerals
Example
Clay minerals in shale transform into mica minerals during metamorphism, producing
rocks such as slate and schist.
Limestone recrystallizes into marble due to heat.

2. Pressure
Pressure is another major factor controlling metamorphism.
There are two types of pressure involved:
1. Lithostatic pressure (confining pressure)
2. Directed pressure (differential stress)
Lithostatic Pressure (Confining Pressure)
Definition: Pressure exerted equally in all directions due to the weight of overlying rocks.
Characteristics
 Increases with depth
 Produces compaction and recrystallization
 Does not usually produce foliation
Example: Formation of marble and quartzite.
Directed Pressure (Differential Stress)
Definition: Pressure applied unequally in different directions, usually caused by tectonic
forces.
Effects
 Causes deformation of rocks
  Produces foliation and lineation
 Aligns platy minerals such as mica
Example: Formation of slate, schist, and gneiss.

3. Chemically Active Fluids

Definition: Fluids such as water, carbon dioxide, and hydrothermal solutions that
participate in metamorphic reactions.
Sources of Fluids
Fluids may originate from:
 Magmatic intrusions
 Dehydration of minerals
 Groundwater circulation
Role of Fluids in Metamorphism
Chemically active fluids:
1. Accelerate chemical reactions
2. Facilitate mineral growth
3. Transport ions and elements
4. Promote metasomatism (chemical alteration of rocks)
Example: Formation of skarn deposits when fluids from magma react with limestone.

4. Composition of Parent Rock (Protolith)

Definition: The original rock from which the metamorphic rock forms is called the
protolith.
The mineral composition of the protolith strongly influences the type of metamorphic
rock produced.
Examples

Protolith Metamorphic Rock

Shale Slate → Phyllite → Schist → Gneiss

Limestone Marble

Sandstone Quartzite

Basalt Amphibolite
 Protolith Metamorphic Rock

Explanation
Different minerals react differently under metamorphic conditions.
For example:
 Quartz-rich rocks form quartzite
 Clay-rich rocks develop foliation
5. Time
Metamorphic reactions occur very slowly, often over millions of years.
Importance of Time
Longer duration allows:
 Complete recrystallization
 Growth of larger crystals
 Development of stable mineral assemblages
If metamorphism occurs rapidly, reactions may remain incomplete.

6. Tectonic Stress and Deformation

Definition: Stress caused by tectonic movements such as folding, faulting, and mountain
building.
Tectonic stress can:
 Deform rocks
 Break and recrystallize minerals
 Produce foliation and lineation
Example: During orogeny (mountain building), rocks are subjected to high pressure and
temperature leading to regional metamorphism.
Types of Metamorphic Textures
A. Foliated Textures
Definition: Foliation refers to the parallel arrangement of platy or elongated minerals in
metamorphic rocks.
It develops due to directed pressure and recrystallization.
Types of Foliated texture.
1. Slaty Texture
Definition: A very fine-grained foliation in which rocks split easily into thin sheets.
Formation Mechanism
 Derived from shale or mudstone
 Clay minerals recrystallize and align perpendicular to compressional stress
Characteristics
 Very fine grains
 Smooth cleavage surfaces
 Splits into thin plates
Example: Slate
Geological Significance: Typical of low-grade metamorphism.

2. Phyllitic Texture
Definition: A texture where fine-grained minerals produce a silky or lustrous sheen.
Formation Mechanism
 Continued metamorphism of slate
 Growth of mica minerals
Characteristics
 Wavy foliation
 Silky appearance
 Slightly coarser than slate
Example: Phyllite
Metamorphic Grade: Low to intermediate grade.
3. Schistose Texture
Definition: A texture characterized by visible platy minerals arranged in parallel layers.
Formation Mechanism
 Growth of minerals such as mica, chlorite, and biotite
 Strong differential pressure causes alignment
Characteristics
 Medium to coarse grains
 Strong foliation
 Rock splits easily along mineral layers
Example: Schist
Common minerals include: Muscovite, Biotite, Garnet, Chlorite

4. Gneissose Texture
Definition: A texture characterized by alternating bands of light and dark minerals.
Formation Mechanism
 High-grade metamorphism
 Mineral segregation into bands during recrystallization
Characteristics
 Coarse-grained
 Distinct mineral banding
 Less tendency to split
Examples: Gneiss, Granite gneiss
Typical Minerals
Light bands: Quartz, Feldspar
Dark bands: Biotite, Amphibole

B. Non-Foliated Textures
Non-foliated textures occur when minerals grow without preferred orientation.
These textures are typical in contact metamorphism or rocks composed of
equidimensional minerals.
1. Granoblastic Texture
Definition: A texture consisting of equidimensional interlocking mineral grains.
Formation Mechanism
Recrystallization under uniform pressure.
Characteristics
 Randomly oriented crystals
 Mosaic appearance
 No foliation
Examples: Marble, Quartzite

2. Hornfelsic Texture
Definition: A very fine-grained, compact texture formed during contact metamorphism.
Formation Mechanism
 High temperature
 Low pressure
 Rapid recrystallization
Characteristics
 Hard and dense
 Fine-grained crystals
 No foliation
Example: Hornfels

3. Porphyroblastic Texture
Definition: A texture in which large metamorphic crystals (porphyroblasts) occur in a finer
matrix.
Formation Mechanism
 Certain minerals grow larger during metamorphism
 Growth occurs during recrystallization
Common Porphyroblasts
 Garnet
  Staurolite
 Andalusite
Example: Garnet-bearing schist.

4. Cataclastic Texture
Definition: A texture produced by mechanical crushing and fragmentation of minerals
during faulting.
Formation Mechanism
 Strong tectonic stresses
 Rock grains are fractured and crushed
Examples
 Fault breccia
 Mylonite
Structures of Metamorphic Rocks
Definition: Metamorphic structures are the large-scale features developed in rocks during
metamorphism due to pressure, temperature, and tectonic forces.
These structures reflect the deformation and mineral reorientation that occur during
metamorphism.
Unlike textures, which describe the size and arrangement of mineral grains, structures
refer to broader features visible in hand specimen or field outcrop.
Metamorphic structures provide valuable information about:
 Tectonic stress
 Pressure conditions
 Metamorphic processes
 Deformation history

1. Foliation
Definition: Foliation is the parallel arrangement or alignment of mineral grains or
structural features within a metamorphic rock.
Formation Mechanism
Foliation develops due to directed pressure (differential stress) during metamorphism.
Under pressure:
 Platy minerals such as mica and chlorite rotate
 Minerals recrystallize and grow perpendicular to the direction of maximum
compression
Characteristics
 Parallel mineral alignment
 Rock splits along planes of weakness
 Common in regional metamorphism
Examples: Slate, Phyllite, Schist, Gneiss

2. Lineation
Definition: Lineation refers to the linear arrangement of elongated minerals or structures
in metamorphic rocks.
Formation Mechanism
Lineation develops due to stretching and deformation of minerals during tectonic stress.
Minerals such as:
 Hornblende
 Amphibole
 Quartz rods
may align in a linear pattern.
Types of Lineation
1. Mineral Lineation – alignment of elongated minerals
2. Stretching Lineation – elongation of minerals during deformation
3. Intersection Lineation – formed by intersection of two foliations
Geological Importance
Lineation helps determine direction of tectonic movement.

3. Banded Structure (Gneissic Banding)

Definition: A structure characterized by alternating light and dark mineral bands.
Formation Mechanism
During high-grade metamorphism, minerals segregate into separate layers due to:
 Recrystallization
 Chemical differentiation
 Directed pressure
Common Mineral Composition:
Light-coloured bands: Quartz, Feldspar
Dark-coloured bands: Biotite. Amphibole
Example: Gneiss
Geological Significance: Indicates high-grade regional metamorphism.

4. Augen Structure
Definition: A structure characterized by large eye-shaped mineral grains surrounded by
foliated minerals.
The word “Augen” comes from the German word for “eyes”.
Formation Mechanism
Occurs when large feldspar crystals are deformed during metamorphism and
surrounded by foliated minerals such as mica.
Characteristics
 Eye-shaped feldspar crystals
 Strong foliation around the crystals
Example: Augen gneiss

5. Migmatitic Structure
Definition: A structure showing mixture of both igneous and metamorphic characteristics.
Formation Mechanism
Occurs during very high-grade metamorphism, when rocks partially melt.
The molten material forms light-coloured bands, while the un-melted part remains
metamorphic.
Components

Part Description

Leucosome Light coloured igneous portion

Melanosome Dark metamorphic portion

Example: Migmatite
Geological Importance: Indicates transition between metamorphism and igneous
activity.

6. Cataclastic Structure
Definition: A structure produced by mechanical crushing and fracturing of rocks during
tectonic movements.
Formation Mechanism
Occurs in fault zones where rocks are subjected to intense pressure and shear stress.
Minerals are:
 Broken
 Crushed
 Fragmented
Examples: Fault breccia, Mylonite, Cataclasite

7. Granulose Structure
Definition: A structure characterized by equidimensional mineral grains arranged in a
mosaic pattern.
Formation Mechanism
Occurs when minerals recrystallize without preferred orientation under uniform
pressure.
Characteristics
 No foliation
 Interlocking crystals
Examples: Marble, Quartzite

8. Schistose Structure
Definition: A structure in which platy minerals are arranged in parallel layers, giving the
rock a flaky appearance.
Formation Mechanism
Strong directed pressure causes alignment of mica minerals.
Characteristics
 Well-developed foliation
 Visible mineral layers
 Rock splits easily
Example: Schist

9. Slaty Structure
Definition: A structure in which rocks split into thin parallel sheets due to closely spaced
cleavage planes.
Formation Mechanism
Formed during low-grade metamorphism of shale or mudstone.
Clay minerals recrystallize and align under pressure.
Characteristics
  Very fine grains
 Smooth cleavage surfaces
 Thin sheet-like layers
Example: Slate

10. Flaser Structure

Definition: A structure consisting of lenticular or streaky patches of minerals within
foliated rocks.
Formation Mechanism
Develops during shearing and deformation, where minerals are stretched and
rearranged.
Example: Flaser gneiss.

Importance of Metamorphic Textures and Structures

They help geologists to:
1. Determine metamorphic grade.
2. Identify pressure and temperature conditions.
3. Understand tectonic deformation.
4. Reconstruct metamorphic history of rocks.
5. Identify economically important minerals such as garnet and kyanite.