Disaster Resistant Structures

Unit 1

Behaviour of Lifeline Structures & Disaster-Resistant Design

Lifeline structures are critical facilities that must remain functional during and after disasters.
These include hospitals, bridges, water supply systems, power stations, communication
networks, and emergency service buildings. The behaviour of such structures under extreme
conditions like floods, cyclones, earthquakes, and fires is of paramount importance because
their failure can lead to large-scale disruption and loss of life. Unlike ordinary buildings, lifeline
structures are designed with higher safety margins, redundancy, and robustness to ensure
uninterrupted service.

The design philosophy for disaster resistance is based on ensuring safety, serviceability, and
durability under extreme loading conditions. For flood resistance, structures are elevated above
flood levels, provided with proper drainage, and designed to withstand hydrostatic and
hydrodynamic forces. In cyclone-prone areas, structures are designed to resist high wind
pressures using aerodynamic shapes, strong connections, and proper anchorage. Earthquake-
resistant design focuses on ductility, flexibility, and energy dissipation through proper detailing
and use of seismic codes. Fire-resistant design involves the use of non-combustible materials,
fireproof coatings, and adequate escape routes to minimize damage and ensure safety.

National and international codes of practice provide guidelines for safe design and construction.
In India, codes such as IS 1893 (Earthquake), IS 875 (Loading), and IS 13920 (Ductile detailing)
are widely used. Internationally, codes like Eurocodes and FEMA guidelines are followed. These
codes specify load combinations, safety factors, material specifications, and design procedures
to ensure structural safety. Additionally, urban and semi-urban areas follow by-laws that
regulate building height, setbacks, occupancy, and safety measures to minimize disaster risks.

The study of past disasters provides valuable lessons for improving design and construction
practices. Events such as earthquakes, cyclones, and floods have highlighted the importance of
proper planning, quality construction, and adherence to codes. Failures often occur due to poor
design, inadequate materials, lack of maintenance, and ignoring safety regulations. Learning
from these failures helps engineers develop safer and more resilient structures.

The approach to traditional and modern structures differs significantly. Traditional structures
often rely on local materials and construction techniques, which may perform well under
certain conditions but lack standardization. Modern structures use advanced materials,
scientific design methods, and improved construction technologies to enhance strength,
durability, and disaster resistance. However, integrating traditional wisdom with modern
engineering practices can lead to more sustainable and resilient designs.

The concept of life-period-based design refers to designing structures based on their expected
service life and performance requirements. Structures are categorized based on importance and
expected lifespan, and design loads are selected accordingly. For example, temporary structures
may be designed for lower safety levels, while critical infrastructure is designed for higher
reliability and longer life. This approach ensures optimal use of resources while maintaining
safety.

Case studies play an important role in understanding real-world applications of disaster-

resistant design. By analyzing successful and failed structures, engineers can identify best
practices and improve future designs. These studies highlight the importance of proper
planning, adherence to codes, use of quality materials, and continuous monitoring and
maintenance.

1. Lifeline Structures (Concept Diagram)

LIFELINE STRUCTURES
|
---------------------------------
| | | | |
Hospitals Bridges Power Water Communication
Plants Supply Systems
These must remain functional during disasters.
2. Disaster-Resistant Design Philosophy
DISASTER RESISTANT DESIGN
|
--------------------------------------
| | | |
Safety Serviceability Durability Redundancy
Structures should not collapse, should function, and last long.
3. Flood Resistant Structure
Flood Level
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
| |
|Building|
| |
_ |_______|___
Raised Plinth
  Raised foundation
 Proper drainage
 Waterproof materials
4. Cyclone Resistant Structure
↑ Wind Force
← ← ███████ → →
/ \
/ Roof \
/ ___________ \
| |
| Building |
|___________ |

Strong anchorage & sloping roof

 Sloping roof reduces wind pressure
 Strong joints & connections
5. Earthquake Resistant Structure
Lateral Force →
___________
| |
| Frame |
| Structure |
|___________|

Flexible + Ductile Design

Structure should bend, not break

6. Fire Resistant Design : Use fireproof materials & exits

7. Traditional vs Modern Structures

TRADITIONAL MODERN

----------- -----------

Mud, Wood RCC, Steel

Local methods Scientific design

Less strength High strength

 8. Life Period Based Design :

STRUCTURE LIFE

-------------------------

| | |

Temporary Normal Critical

(5-10 yr) (50 yr) (100+ yr)

Higher importance → Higher safety

9. Learning from Disasters : DISASTER → FAILURE → ANALYSIS → IMPROVED DESIGN

Example: Earthquake failures → better seismic codes

10. Case Study Concept Flow

Real Event → Study Damage → Identify Cause → Apply Improvement

Real Case Studies (Disaster-Resistant Design)

1. Bhuj Earthquake (India, 2001)

The Bhuj earthquake (magnitude 7.7) caused massive destruction in Gujarat, leading to the
collapse of thousands of buildings and loss of over 13,000 lives. Most failures occurred due to
poor construction practices, lack of ductile detailing, and heavy unreinforced masonry
structures.

Observations:

• Collapse of non-engineered buildings

• Shear failure in columns

• Soft storey failure in multi-storey buildings

Lessons Learned:

• Importance of seismic design as per IS 1893

• Need for ductile detailing (IS 13920)

• Avoidance of soft storey (open ground floor) design

2. Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004)

The tsunami affected coastal regions of India (Tamil Nadu, Andaman & Nicobar Islands) causing
widespread flooding and structural damage.

Observations:

• Buildings near shorelines were completely washed away

• Severe damage due to hydrodynamic forces

Lessons Learned:

• Coastal regulation zones (CRZ) are essential

• Elevated structures and stilt floors improve safety

• Need for early warning systems

3. Cyclone Fani (India, 2019)

Cyclone Fani was an extremely severe cyclone that hit Odisha with wind speeds up to 250 km/h.

Observations:

• Damage to kutcha houses and weak structures

• Failure of roofs due to uplift pressure

Lessons Learned:

• Importance of cyclone-resistant roofing

• Strong anchorage between roof and walls

• Use of wind-resistant structural shapes

4. Uttarakhand Floods (India, 2013)

Heavy rainfall and cloudbursts caused flash floods and landslides in Uttarakhand.

Observations:

• Buildings constructed near riverbanks collapsed

 • Bridge failures due to scouring

Lessons Learned:

• Avoid construction in flood-prone zones

• Proper river training and drainage planning

• Deep foundation to resist scouring

5. Latur Earthquake (India, 1993)

A moderate earthquake caused severe damage due to poor construction practices.

Observations:

• Collapse of stone masonry houses

• Lack of reinforcement and binding materials

Lessons Learned:

• Need for earthquake-resistant rural construction

• Use of bands (plinth band, lintel band, roof band)

• Importance of quality materials

6. Grenfell Tower Fire (UK, 2017)

A high-rise residential building caught fire, leading to significant loss of life.

Observations:

• Fire spread rapidly due to combustible cladding

• Lack of proper fire safety measures

Lessons Learned:

• Use of fire-resistant materials

• Proper fire escape routes and alarms

• Strict enforcement of fire safety codes

Quick Revision Table

Disaster Main Cause Key Lesson

Bhuj EQ Seismic failure Ductile design

Tsunami Water force Elevated buildings

Cyclone Fani Wind Strong roofing

Uttarakhand Flood Flood/scour Avoid riverbanks

Latur EQ Poor construction Reinforced masonry

Grenfell Fire Fire spread Fireproof materials

 Unit–2

Community Structures

Community structures are buildings and facilities that serve the public and are essential for
social functioning. These include schools, hospitals, community halls, bridges, dams, and public
utility buildings. The safety and performance of such structures are crucial, especially during
disasters, because they accommodate large populations and are often used as emergency
shelters. Therefore, they must be designed with higher safety standards, redundancy, and
resilience.

Safety Analysis and Rating

Safety analysis is the process of evaluating the structural integrity and performance of a building
under various loads such as dead load, live load, wind load, seismic forces, and other
environmental effects. It involves checking the strength, stability, and serviceability of the
structure.

Safety rating is the classification of structures based on their condition and performance:

• Safe – No significant damage

• Repairable – Minor to moderate damage

• Unsafe – Severe damage, risk of collapse

Concept Diagram: Safety Evaluation

STRUCTURE
|
-----------------
| | |
Strength Stability Serviceability
|
SAFETY RATING
-----------------
Safe Repair Unsafe

Reliability Assessment

Reliability assessment refers to the probability that a structure will perform its intended
function without failure during its design life. It considers uncertainties in material properties,
load estimations, and environmental conditions.

Key components include:

 • Load prediction

• Material strength variability

• Probability of failure

Higher reliability is required for critical structures like hospitals and bridges.

Repairs and Retrofitting Techniques

Repairs involve restoring a damaged structure to its original condition, while retrofitting
improves the strength and performance of an existing structure to meet modern safety
standards.

Common Retrofitting Techniques:

1. Jacketing (Column/Beam Strengthening)

o Adding concrete or steel around existing members

2. Bracing System

o Providing steel bracings to resist lateral forces

3. Base Isolation

o Reduces earthquake forces by isolating structure from ground motion

4. Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)

o Lightweight strengthening material

Diagram: Column Jacketing

Before After
------ --------
| | |####|
| | → |####|
|__| |####|

Weak column Strengthened column

Protection of Nuclear Structures

Nuclear structures require extremely high levels of safety due to the potential catastrophic
consequences of failure. These structures are designed to resist extreme loads such as
earthquakes, explosions, and radiation hazards.
Protective measures include:

• Thick reinforced concrete walls

• Containment structures

• Radiation shielding

• Redundant safety systems

These structures follow strict international safety standards and multiple layers of protection.

Dams, Bridges, and Buildings

Dams

Dams are massive structures used to store water and generate power. They must resist
hydrostatic pressure, uplift forces, and seismic loads. Failure of dams can cause catastrophic
flooding.

Bridges

Bridges must withstand dynamic loads, wind forces, and seismic effects. Regular inspection and
maintenance are essential to ensure safety.

Buildings

Buildings, especially public buildings, must follow building codes and safety standards. Proper
design, material selection, and maintenance are key to ensuring safety.

Diagram: Retrofitting Approach

Existing Structure → Damage Assessment → Repair → Retrofitting → Safe Structure

1. Reliability Concept Diagram

Resistance (R)

-----------→

_________

/ \

/ \

-------/-------------\-----------

/ \

/ \

_/_________________\______

Load Effect (S)

Overlap region = Probability of Failure

Left curve → Load (S)

Right curve → Resistance (R)

Overlapping area → Failure zone

Greater separation → Higher safety (higher β)

Retrofitting Methods with Examples :

1. Jacketing (Column / Beam Jacketing)

Method:
Additional concrete, steel plates, or reinforcement is added around existing structural members
(columns/beams) to increase strength and stiffness.

Where used:
Weak columns, earthquake-damaged structures

Example:
After the Bhuj Earthquake, many damaged RCC buildings were strengthened using RC jacketing
to improve load-carrying capacity.
2. Steel Bracing System

Method:
Steel diagonal members are added to the frame to resist lateral loads (earthquake/wind).

Where used:
Multi-storey buildings, industrial structures

Example:
Steel bracing was widely used in retrofitting office buildings in seismic zones after the Latur
Earthquake.

3. Base Isolation

Method:
Flexible bearings (rubber/lead) are installed between foundation and structure to reduce
earthquake forces.

Where used:
Hospitals, bridges, critical buildings

Example:
Many hospitals in Japan use base isolation after lessons from the Kobe Earthquake to remain
functional during earthquakes.

4. Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Wrapping

Method:
Lightweight composite materials (carbon/glass fibers) are wrapped around structural members
to increase strength and ductility.

Where used:
Columns, beams

Example:
Bridge columns damaged during earthquakes are often retrofitted using FRP wrapping in
modern infrastructure projects.
5. Crack Injection (Epoxy Injection)

Method:
Epoxy or resin is injected into cracks to restore structural integrity and prevent further damage.

Where used:
Concrete structures with cracks

Example:
Used in repairing buildings affected during the Uttarakhand Floods where cracks developed due
to water pressure.

6. Shotcrete (Gunite Technique)

Method:
Concrete is sprayed at high velocity onto surfaces to strengthen walls and structural members.

Where used:
Dams, tunnels, retaining walls

Example:
Used in dam rehabilitation works after failures like the Morbi Dam Failure.

7. Adding Shear Walls

Method:
New reinforced concrete walls are added to resist lateral forces.

Where used:
High-rise buildings in seismic zones

Example:
Many old buildings were retrofitted with shear walls after the Nepal Earthquake.

8. Foundation Strengthening

Method:
Improving foundation using underpinning, grouting, or piles.

Where used:
Weak soil or settlement problems
Example:
Bridge foundations strengthened after scouring observed during the Uttarakhand Floods.

Quick Comparison Table

Method Purpose Example Use

Jacketing Increase strength Earthquake damaged columns

Bracing Resist lateral load Tall buildings

Base Isolation Reduce seismic force Hospitals

FRP Lightweight strengthening Bridges

Epoxy Injection Crack repair Concrete structures

Shotcrete Surface strengthening Dams

Shear Wall Lateral stability High-rise buildings

Foundation Strengthening Soil improvement Bridges

1. Reliability Index (β) Calculation

The reliability index is given by:

Problem:

Mean resistance μR=500 kN

Mean load μS=300 kN
Standard deviations: σR=50 kN, σS=40 kN

Solution:
Answer:

Reliability Index = 3.12 (Safe structure)

2. Factor of Safety

FOS=Ultimate Load/Working

Problem:

Ultimate load = 600 kN

Working load = 300 kN

Solution:

FOS=600/300=2

Answer:

FOS = 2 (Safe design)

3. Load Combination (Limit State Method)

1.5(DL+LL)

Problem:

Dead Load = 200 kN

Live Load = 150 kN

Solution:

1.5(200+150)=1.5×350=525 kN

Answer:

Factored Load = 525 kN

4. Increase in Column Strength (Jacketing)

Problem:

Original column capacity = 800 kN

After jacketing = 1200 kN

Solution:

Increase %=1200−800/800×100=50%

Answer:

Strength increased by 50%

5. Probability of Failure

Relationship:

Pf=Φ(−β)

Problem:

Reliability index β=3

Solution:

From standard normal table:

Pf≈0.00135

Answer:

Probability of failure ≈ 0.135%

6. Crack Width Check (Basic Conceptual Numerical)

Problem:

Permissible crack width = 0.3 mm

Measured crack width = 0.5 mm

Answer:

Since 0.5 mm > 0.3 mm → Structure needs repair/retrofitting

7. Base Shear (Basic Seismic Concept)

V=Ah×W

Problem:

Seismic coefficient Ah=0.1

Building weight W=1000 kN

Solution:

V=0.1×1000=100 kN

Answer:

Base shear = 100 kN

8. Retrofitting Cost Estimation

Problem:

Cost of retrofitting per m² = ₹1500

Area = 200 m²

Solution:

Total Cost=1500×200=₹3,00,000

Answer:

Total cost = ₹3 lakh