ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION

Module-5

Material handling and Identification Technologies:

Material handling is defined by the Material Handling Industry of America as “the

movement, protection, storage and control of materials and products throughout the process
of manufacture and distribution, consumption and disposal”. The handling of materials must
be performed safely, efficiently, at low cost, in a timely manner, accurately (the right materials
in the right quantities to the right locations), and without damage to the materials.

Material handling is an important yet often overlooked issue in production. The cost of
material handling is a significant portion of total production cost, estimates averaging around
20–25% of total manufacturing labor cost in the United States. This proportion varies,
depending on type of production and degree of automation in material handling.

Overview of Material Handling Systems:

Material handling is one of the activities in the larger distribution system by which
materials, parts, and products are moved, stored, and tracked in the world’s commercial
infrastructure. The term commonly used for the larger system is logistics, which is concerned
with the acquisition, movement, storage, and distribution of materials and products, as well as
the planning and control of these operations in order to satisfy customer demand. Logistics
operations can be divided into two basic categories: external logistics and internal logistics.
External logistics is concerned with transportation and related activities that occur outside of
a facility. In general, these activities involve the movement of materials between different
geographical locations. The five traditional modes of transportation are rail, truck, air, ship,
and pipeline. Internal logistics, more popularly known as material handling, involves the
movement and storage of materials inside a given facility.

Material Handling Equipment

A great variety of material handling equipment is available commercially. The

equipment can be classified into five categories: (1) transport equipment, (2) positioning

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equipment, (3) unit load formation equipment, (4) storage equipment, and (5) identification
and control equipment.

Transport Equipment. Material transport equipment is used to move materials inside a

factory, warehouse, or other facility. The five main types of equipment are (1) industrial trucks,
(2) automated guided vehicles, (3) rail-guided vehicles, (4) conveyors, and (5) hoists and
cranes.

Positioning Equipment. This category consists of equipment used to handle parts and other
materials at a single location: for example, loading and unloading parts from a production
machine in a work cell. Positioning is accomplished by industrial robots that perform material
handling and parts feeders in automated assembly. Hoists used at a single location can also be
included in this category.

Unit Load Formation Equipment. The term unitizing equipment refers to (1) containers used
to hold individual items during handling and (2) equipment used to load and package the
containers. Containers include pallets, tote pans, boxes, baskets, barrels, and drums, some of
which are shown in Figure 10.2.

The second category of unitizing equipment includes palletizers, which are designed to
automatically load cartons onto pallets and shrink-wrap plastic film around them for shipping,
and depalletizers, which are designed to unload cartons from pallets. Other wrapping and
packaging machines are also included in this equipment category.

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Storage Equipment. In manufacturing, it is ideal to minimize material storage. However, raw
materials and work-in-process often need temporary storage. Finished products also typically
spend time in a warehouse before delivery. Therefore, companies must find the best ways to
store materials and products at all stages of production.

Storage methods and equipment can be classified into two major categories: (1)
conventional storage methods and (2) automated storage systems. Conventional storage
methods include bulk storage (storing items in an open floor area), rack systems (for pallets),
shelving and bins, and drawer storage. In general, conventional storage methods are labor-
intensive. Human workers put materials into storage and retrieve them from storage.
Automated storage systems are designed to reduce or eliminate the manual labor involved in
these functions.

Identification and Control Equipment. The scope of material handling includes keeping
track of the materials being moved and stored. This is usually done by affixing some kind of
label to the item, carton, or unit load that uniquely identifies it. The most common label used
today is a bar code that can be read quickly and automatically by bar code readers. An
alternative identification technology that is growing in importance is RFID (for radio
frequency identification).

Principles and Design Consideration:

Material handling equipment is usually assembled into a system. The system must be specified
and configured to satisfy the requirements of a particular application. Design of the system
depends on the materials to be handled, quantities and distances to be moved, type of
production facility served by the handling system, and other factors, including available
budget. The factors that influence the design of the material handling system are as follows.

1. Material Characteristics
2. Flow Rate, Routing, and Scheduling
3. Plant Layout
4. Unit Load Principle

Material Characteristics.

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For handling purposes, materials can be classified by the physical characteristics presented in
Table. Design of the material handling system must take these factors into account.

For example, if the material is a liquid that is to be moved over long distances in great volumes,
then a pipeline is the appropriate transport means. But this handling method would be
infeasible for moving a liquid contained in barrels or other containers. Materials in a factory
usually consist of solid items: raw materials, parts, and finished or semifinished products.

Flow Rate, Routing, and Scheduling.

In addition to material characteristics, other factors must be considered in determining

which type of equipment is most appropriate for the application. These other factors include

(1) quantities and flow rates of materials to be moved,

(2) routing factors, and

(3) scheduling of the moves.

The quantity of material to be moved influences the type of handling system needed.
For large quantities, a dedicated handling system is ideal. For small quantities of various
materials, a shared handling system is better. The flow rate, or amount of material moved per
time unit, is crucial and can be measured in pieces, pallet loads, or tons per hour. Whether
materials are moved individually, in batches, or continuously also affects the choice of
handling method.

Routing factors include pickup and drop-off locations, move distances, routing
variations, and route conditions. Handling cost increases with move distance. Different

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materials follow different flow patterns, so the handling system must be flexible. Route
conditions such as floor surface, traffic, outdoor sections, path straightness, elevation changes,
and pedestrian presence all influence the design of the material transport system.

Scheduling involves timing each delivery precisely. Prompt pickup and delivery are
crucial for maintaining system efficiency. The handling system must be responsive to this
need. Rush jobs increase handling costs. Buffer stocks at pickup and drop-off points can
mitigate scheduling urgency, creating a "float" of materials that eases the pressure on the
handling system for immediate responses.

Plant Layout:

The material handling system is an important factor in plant layout design. When a new
facility is being planned, the handling system should be considered part of the layout. In this
way, there is greater opportunity to create a layout that optimizes material flow in the building
and utilizes the most appropriate type of handling system. In the case of an existing facility,
there are more constraints on the design of the handling system. The present arrangement of
departments and equipment in the building often limits the attainment of optimum flow
patterns.

The conventional plant layouts used in manufacturing: (1) process layout, (2) product
layout, and (3) fixed-position layout. Different material handling systems are generally
required for the three layout types. Table 10.2 summarizes the characteristics of the three
conventional layout types and the kinds of material handling equipment usually associated
with each layout type.

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Unit Load Principle.

The Unit Load Principle stands as an important and widely applied principle in material
handling. A unit load is simply the mass that is to be moved or otherwise handled at one time.
The unit load may consist of only one part, a container loaded with multiple parts, or a pallet
loaded with multiple containers of parts. In general, the unit load should be designed to be as
large as is practical for the material handling system that will move or store it, subject to
considerations of safety, convenience, and access to the materials making up the unit load.
This principle is widely applied in the truck, rail, and ship industries. Palletized unit loads are
collected into truck loads, which then become larger unit loads themselves. Then these truck
loads are aggregated once again on freight trains or ships, in effect becoming even larger unit
loads.

There are good reasons for using unit loads in material handling: (1) multiple items can be
handled simultaneously, (2) the required number of trips is reduced, (3) loading and unloading
times are reduced, and (4) product damage is decreased. Using unit loads results in lower cost
and higher operating efficiency.

Material Transport Systems:

The material transport equipment commonly used to move parts and other materials in
manufacturing and warehouse facilities are :

(1) industrial trucks, manual and powered;

(2) automated guided vehicles;

(3) rail-guided vehicles;

(4) conveyors; and

(5) cranes and hoists.

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(1) Industrial Trucks

Industrial trucks are divided into two categories: nonpowered and powered. The nonpowered
types are often referred to as hand trucks because they are pushed or pulled by human workers.
Quantities of material moved and distances traveled are relatively low when this type of
equipment is used to transport materials.

Powered trucks are self-propelled and guided by a worker. Three common types are
used in factories and warehouses: (a) walkie trucks, (b) forklift rider trucks, and (c) towing
tractors.

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(2) Automated Guided Vehicles

An automated guided vehicle system (AGVS) is a material handling system that uses
independently operated, self-propelled vehicles guided along defined pathways. The AGVs
are powered by on-board batteries that allow many hours of operation (8–16 hr is typical)
before needing to be recharged. A distinguishing feature of an AGVS, compared to rail guided
vehicle systems and most conveyor systems, is that the pathways are unobtrusive.

Automated guided vehicles can be divided into the following categories: (1) towing vehicles
for driverless trains, (2) pallet trucks, and (3) unit load carriers, illustrated in Figure 10.5.

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 A driverless train consists of a towing vehicle (the AGV) pulling one or more trailers to
form a train, as in Figure 10.5(a). It was the first type of AGVS to be introduced and is still
widely used today. A common application is moving heavy payloads over long distances in
warehouses or factories with or without intermediate pickup and drop-off points along the
route. For trains consisting of 5–10 trailers, this is an efficient transport system.

Automated guided pallet trucks, Figure 10.5(b), are used to move palletized loads along
predetermined routes. In the typical application the vehicle is backed into the loaded pallet by
a human worker who steers the truck and uses its forks to elevate the load slightly. Then the
worker drives the pallet truck to the guide path and programs its destination, and the vehicle
proceeds automatically to the destination for unloading.

AGV unit load carriers are used to move unit loads from one station to another. They
are often equipped for automatic loading and unloading of pallets or tote pans by means of
powered rollers, moving belts, mechanized lift platforms, or other devices built into the vehicle
deck. A typical unit load AGV is illustrated in Figure 10.5(c).

The principal AGVS applications in production and logistics are

(1) driverless train operations,

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(2) storage and distribution,

(3) assembly line applications, and

(4) flexible manufacturing systems.

(3) Rail-guided vehicles;

The third category of material transport equipment consists of motorized vehicles that are
guided by a fixed rail system. The rail system consists of either one rail, called a monorail, or
two parallel rails. Monorails in factories and warehouses are typically suspended overhead
from the ceiling. In rail-guided vehicle systems using parallel fixed rails, the tracks generally
protrude up from the floor.

(4) Conveyors;

A conveyor is a mechanical apparatus for moving items or bulk materials, usually inside a
facility. Conveyors are generally used when material must be moved in relatively large
quantities between specific locations over a fixed path, which may be in the floor, above the
floor, or overhead. Conveyors are either powered or nonpowered. In powered conveyors, the
power mechanism is contained in the fixed path, using chains, belts, rotating rolls, or other
devices to propel loads along the path. Powered conveyors are commonly used in automated
material transport systems in manufacturing plants, warehouses, and distribution centers. In
nonpowered conveyors, materials are moved either manually by human workers who push the
loads along the fixed path or by gravity from one elevation to a lower elevation.

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(5) Cranes and hoists:

The fifth category of transport equipment in material handling is cranes and hoists.
Cranes are used for horizontal movement of materials in a facility, and hoists are used for
vertical lifting. A crane invariably includes a hoist; thus, the hoist component of the crane lifts
the load, and the crane transports the load horizontally to the desired destination. This class of
material handling equipment includes cranes capable of lifting and moving very heavy loads,
in some cases over 100 tons.

A hoist is a mechanical device used to raise and lower loads. As seen in Figure 10.11, a
hoist consists of one or more fixed pulleys, one or more moving pulleys, and a rope, cable, or
chain strung between the pulleys. A hook or other means for attaching the load is connected to
the moving pulley(s). The number of pulleys in the hoist determines its mechanical advantage,
which is the ratio of the load weight to the driving force required to lift the weight. The
mechanical advantage of the hoist in Figure 10.11 is 4. The driving force to operate the hoist
is usually applied by electric or pneumatic motor.
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 Cranes include a variety of material handling equipment designed for lifting and moving
heavy loads using one or more overhead beams for support. Principal types of cranes found in
factories include (a) bridge cranes, (b) gantry cranes, and (c) jib cranes. In all three types, at
least one hoist is mounted to a trolley that rides on the overhead beam of the crane.

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 A bridge crane consists of one or two horizontal girders or beams suspended between
fixed rails on either end which are connected to the structure of the building, as shown in
Figure 10.12(a). The hoist trolley can be moved along the length of the bridge, and the bridge
can be moved the length of the rails in the building. These two drive capabilities provide
motion in the x- and y-axes of the building, and the hoist provides motion in the z-axis
direction. Thus, the bridge crane achieves vertical lifting due to its hoist and horizontal
movement due to its orthogonal rail system.

A gantry crane is distinguished from a bridge crane by the presence of one or two
vertical legs that support the horizontal bridge. As with the bridge crane, a gantry crane
includes one or more hoists that accomplish vertical lifting. A double gantry crane has two
legs. A half gantry crane, Figure 10.12(b), has a single leg on one end of the bridge, and the
other end is supported by a rail mounted on the wall or other structural member of a building.

A jib crane consists of a hoist supported on a horizontal beam that is cantilevered from
a vertical column or wall support, as in Figure 10.12(c). The horizontal beam pivots about the
vertical axis formed by the column or wall to provide a horizontal sweep for the crane. The
beam also serves as the track for the hoist trolley to provide radial travel along the length of
the beam. Thus, the horizontal area included by a jib crane is circular or semicircular.

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Storage Systems:

Materials stored by a manufacturing firm include a variety of types, as indicated in Table 11.1.
Categories (1) through (5) relate directly to the product, (6) through (8) relate to the process,
and (9) and (10) relate to overall support of factory operations. The different categories require
different storage methods and controls.

You can design and run a storage system efficiently by using specific metrics and methods.
The key topics covered are:

(1) measures of storage system performance and

(2) storage location strategies.

(1) measures of storage system performance:

Various measures used to assess the performance of a storage system include

(1) storage capacity,

(2) storage density,

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(3) accessibility, and

(4) throughput.

In addition, standard measures used for mechanized and automated systems include

(5) utilization and

(6) reliability.

Storage capacity can be defined and measured in two ways: (1) as the total volumetric space
available or (2) as the total number of storage compartments in the system available to hold
items or loads. The physical capacity of the storage system should be greater than the
maximum number of loads anticipated to be stored, to provide available empty spaces for
materials entering the system, and to allow for variations in maximum storage requirements.

Storage density is defined as the volumetric space available for actual storage relative to the
total volumetric space in the storage facility. Floor area is sometimes used to assess storage
density, because it is convenient to measure this on a floor plan of the facility. However,
volumetric density is usually a more appropriate measure than area density.

Accessibility means being able to reach any item or load stored in the system easily. When
designing a storage system, it's important to balance storage density with accessibility, making
sure you can store a lot without making it hard to access items.

System throughput is defined as the hourly rate at which the storage system (1) receives and
puts loads into storage and/or (2) retrieves and delivers loads to the output station. The storage
system must be designed for the maximum throughput that will be required during the day.

Utilization is the amount of time the system is used for storage and retrieval operations
compared to the total time it is available. Utilization varies throughout the day, as requirements
change from hour to hour. It is desirable to design an automated storage system for relatively
high utilization, in the range 80–90%. If utilization is too low, then the system is probably
overdesigned. If utilization is too high, then there is no allowance for rush periods or system
breakdowns.

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Availability measures how reliable the system is by comparing the time it can operate (without
breaking down) to the scheduled working hours. Malfunctions and failures of the equipment
cause downtime. Reasons for downtime include computer failures, mechanical breakdowns,
load jams, improper maintenance, and incorrect procedures by personnel using the system.
The reliability of an existing system can be improved by following good preventive
maintenance procedures and by having repair parts on hand for critical components. Backup
procedures should be devised to mitigate the effects of system downtime.

(2) storage location strategies:

Several strategies can be used to organize stock in a storage system. The two basic strategies
applied in warehousing operations are

(1) randomized storage and

(2) dedicated storage.

Each item type stored in a warehouse is known as a stock-keeping-unit (SKU). The SKU
uniquely identifies that item type. The inventory records of the storage facility maintain a count
of the quantities of each SKU that are in storage

In randomized storage, items are stored in any available location in the storage system.
In the usual implementation of randomized storage, incoming items are placed into storage in
the nearest available open location. When an order is received for a given SKU, the stock is
retrieved from storage according to a first-in-first-out policy so that the items held in storage
the longest are used to make up the order.

In dedicated storage, SKUs are assigned to specific locations in the storage facility. This
means that locations are reserved for all SKUs stored in the system, and so the number of
storage locations for each SKU must be sufficient to accommodate its maximum inventory
level. The basis for specifying the storage locations is usually one of the following: (1) items
are stored in part number or product number sequence; (2) items are stored according to
activity level, the more active SKUs being located closer to the input/output station; or (3)
items are stored according to their activity-to-space ratios, the higher ratios being located
closer to the input/output station.

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CONVENTIONAL STORAGE METHODS AND EQUIPMENT

A variety of storage methods and equipment are available to store the various materials listed
in Table. The choice of method and equipment depends largely on the materials to be stored,
the operating philosophy of the personnel managing the storage facility, and budgetary
limitations.

Bulk Storage. Bulk storage is the storage of stock in an open floor area. The stock is generally
contained in unit loads on pallets or similar containers, and unit loads are stacked on top of
each other to increase storage density. Although bulk storage is characterized by the absence
of specific storage equipment, material handling equipment must be used to put materials into
storage and to retrieve them. Industrial trucks such as pallet trucks and powered forklifts are
typically used for this purpose.

Rack Systems. Rack systems provide a method of stacking unit loads vertically without the
need for the loads themselves to provide support.

Shelving and Bins. Shelves represent one of the most common storage equipment types. A
shelf is a horizontal platform, supported by a wall or frame, on which materials are stored.
Shelving often includes bins, which are containers or boxes that hold loose items.

Drawer Storage. Finding items in shelving can sometimes be difficult, especially if the shelf
is either far above or far below eye level for the storage attendant. Storage drawers, can
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alleviate this problem because each drawer pulls out to allow its entire contents to be readily
seen. Modular drawer storage cabinets are available with a variety of drawer depths for
different item sizes and are widely used for storage of tools and maintenance items.

AUTOMATED STORAGE SYSTEMS:

Mechanized and automated storage systems are available that reduce or eliminate the
amount of human intervention required to operate the system. The level of automation varies.
In less automated systems, a human operator is required to handle each storage/retrieval
transaction. In highly automated systems, loads are entered or retrieved under computer
control, with no human participation except to input data to the computer.

Companies have a variety of reasons for automating the storage function. The following
is a list of possible objectives and reasons behind company decisions to automate their storage
operations.

❖ To increase storage capacity

❖ To increase storage density
❖ To recover factory floor space presently used for storing work-in-process To improve
security and reduce pilferage
❖ To improve safety in the storage function
❖ To reduce labor cost and/or increase labor productivity in storage operations To improve
control over inventories
❖ To improve stock rotation
❖ To improve customer service
❖ To increase throughput

Automated storage systems divide into two general types:

(1) fixed-aisle automated storage/retrieval systems and

(2) carousel storage systems.

A fixed-aisle AS/RS consists of a rack structure for storing loads and a storage/retrieval
machine whose motions are linear (x–y–z motions), as pictured in Figure 11.5. By contrast, a

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carousel system uses storage baskets attached to a chain-driven conveyor that revolves around
an oval track loop to deliver the baskets to a load/unload station, as in Figure 11.6.

The differences between an AS/RS and a carousel storage system are summarized in below
table. Both types include horizontal and vertical structures, with the horizontal configuration
being much more common in both cases.

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Overview of Automatic Identification Methods:

Nearly all of the automatic identification technologies consist of three principal components,
which also comprise the sequential steps in AIDC (Automatic Identification and Data
Capture):

1. Data encoder. A code is a set of symbols or signals that usually represent alphanumeric
characters. When data are encoded, the characters are translated into a machine-readable code.
(For most AIDC techniques, the encoded data are not readable by humans.) A label or tag
containing the encoded data is attached to the item that is to be identified.

2. Machine reader or scanner. This device reads the encoded data, converting them to
alternative form, usually an electrical analog signal.
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3. Data decoder. This component transforms the electrical signal into digital data and finally
back into the original alphanumeric characters.

Many different technologies are used to implement automated identification and data
collection. Within the category of bar codes alone (currently the leading AIDC technology),
more than 250 different bar code schemes have been devised.

AIDC technologies can be divided into the following six categories.

1. Optical. Most of these technologies use high-contrast graphical symbols that can be
interpreted by an optical scanner. They include linear (one-dimensional) and two-dimensional
bar codes, optical character recognition, and machine vision.

2. Electromagnetic. The important AIDC technology in this group is radio frequency

identification (RFID), which uses a small electronic tag capable of holding more data than a
bar code. Its applications are gaining on bar codes due to several mandates from companies
like Walmart and from the U.S. Department of Defense.

3. Magnetic. These technologies encode data magnetically, similar to recording tape. The two
important techniques in this category are (a) magnetic stripe, widely used in plastic credit cards
and bank access cards, and (b) magnetic ink character recognition, widely used in the banking
industry for check processing.

4. Smart card. This term refers to small plastic cards (the size of a credit card) imbedded with
microchips capable of containing large amounts of information. Other terms used for this
technology include chip card and integrated circuit card.

5. Touch techniques. These include touch screens and button memory.

6. Biometric. These technologies are utilized to identify humans or to interpret vocal

commands of humans. They include voice recognition, fingerprint analysis, and retinal eye
scans.

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The most widely used AIDC technologies in production and distribution are bar codes and
radio frequency methods. The common applications of AIDC technologies are

(1) receiving.

(2) shipping.

(3) order picking.

(4) finished goods storage.

(5) manufacturing processing.

(6) work-in-process storage.

(7) assembly.

(8) sortation.

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