Physics of Materials - Module I - Oscillations

Oscillations: Terminologies: Amplitude, displacement, Frequency, Angular frequency, Period,

Simple Harmonic Motion, Derive: Relation between ν and T,  and T, Equation of SHM with
initial phase, Restoring force and force constant, Theory of damped oscillations (Qualitative),
Types of damping (Graphical Approach). Engineering applications of damped oscillations,
Theory of forced oscillations (Qualitative), Resonance and Sharpness of resonance. Resonance
in LCR Circuits (Qualitative), Numerical Problems.

Oscillations

• Oscillatory motion is the type of motion in which the moving particle describes a forward and
backward (to and fro) motion again and again with respect to an equilibrium point.
Examples:
1. Mass attached to a spring.
2. Vibrations of a tuning fork.

• The oscillation is said to be periodic, if the body reaches the same point in its path at equal
intervals of time.
Examples:
1. Oscillation of a simple pendulum.
2. Vibration of atoms in a solid.

Terminologies
Amplitude (‘A’): The maximum distance covered by the body on either side of its mean or
equilibrium position during the oscillation is called its amplitude.
Displacement (‘x’): The distance of the body from its mean position, at any given instant, measured
along its path gives its displacement at that instant of time.
Frequency (‘ν’): Number of oscillations executed by an oscillating body in unit time is called its
frequency . The SI unit of frequency is hertz, abbreviated as Hz. One Hz is one oscillation per second.
Period (‘T’): It is the time taken by the body to complete one oscillation.
Angular frequency (‘𝜔’): It is the angle covered in unit time by a representative point moving on a
circle whose motion is correlated to the motion of the vibrating body. The SI unit of angular frequency
is radian per second.
Equilibrium Position: It is the position a body assumes when at rest, and also the position about
which it is displaced symmetrically while executing a simple harmonic motion.
Simple Harmonic Motion: If a body moves to and fro about its mean (equilibrium) position, and its
acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement from the mean position and always directed
towards the mean position, then the motion is called simple harmonic motion.
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Relation between ν and T:
Let the body execute n oscillations in t seconds.
∴ No. of oscillations/second = ν = n/t ………….. (1)
Also, since time taken for n oscillations = t seconds, time taken for one oscillation is,
T = t/n (or) 1/T = n/t …………..(2)
from (1) & (2),
we have ν = 1/T
Relation between 𝜔 and T:
Let the body take T seconds to complete one oscillation (i.e., one complete rotation of the
representative point on the circle). The angle covered in such a case is 2π radians.
∴ by the definition of angular frequency
Angle covered
𝜔= Time taken
2π
𝜔= = 2πν
T

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM):

Simple Harmonic Motion is a periodic motion in which force is directed towards the mean position
and is proportional to displacement.
Force, Fα–x where, x is the displacement
F = - mω2x ω is the angular velocity
Characteristics of SHM
All oscillatory motions need not be SHM. But for those which could be called SHM, the
characteristics can be listed as follows,
1. The oscillating system must have inertia which in turn means mass.
2. There is constant restoring force continuously acting on the body/system.
3. The acceleration developed in the motion due to the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement.
4. Also, the direction of acceleration is opposite to that of the displacement.

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 Equation of a Simple Harmonic Motion:

Suppose a particle P moves along the circumference of a circle of radius a in the anticlockwise
direction (Fig.1(A)). Then,

• The particle executing uniform circular motion with an angular velocity ω.

• The particle starts from point X and moves to point P in a certain time 't'.
• The angle covered by the radius OP in time 't' is called θ and θ = ωt.
• From point P, draw a perpendicular line PN to the diameter YOY’
• As P moves around the circle, N moves back and forth along the line YOY’
• The acceleration of N is always directed towards the center O of the circle.
• The back-and-forth motion of N along the line is called simple harmonic motion because the
acceleration is always directed towards a fixed point (O).

Therefore the displacement of the particle at a given instant is

x = ON
= OP Sin (θ) (since XOP = θ )
x = A Sin (ωt) (since OP = A and θ = ωt)
where, 'A' is the maximum displacement (amplitude).
'ω' is the natural angular frequency.
't' is time.
Then,
𝑑𝑥
The velocity v= = Aω Cos ωt
𝑑𝑡
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 𝑑2𝑥
Acceleration a = = - Aω2 Sin ωt
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝑥
= - ω2 x
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝑥
+ ω2 x = 0
𝑑𝑡 2

This is the differential equation for a simple harmonic motion

𝜔
The frequency of oscillation is ν =
2𝜋

1 𝑘
ν = √ is the natural frequency of the oscillation.
2𝜋 𝑚

• If the particle starts from a different point S (Fig.1(B)) it has some initial displacement.

• Let the angle between S and X be φ called the initial phase or epoch.
• If the particle starts above, then the equation for displacement is
x = OP sin (ωt – φ) (since XOP = θ - φ )
⸫ x = A sin(ωt - φ).
• If the starting position of the particle happens to lie above X then the equation becomes,
x = A sin(ωt +φ).
Restoring Force and the Force Constant:
When a body is oscillating (or vibrating), its velocity variation has the following features.
The velocity of the body,
(a) Decreases when moving away from the equilibrium position
(b) Increases while approaching the equilibrium position
(c) Becomes maximum when crossing the equilibrium position
(d) Becomes zero at the maximum displacement, where the body reverses its direction of motion.
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Damped Oscillations:

Definition:
Damped oscillations are oscillations whose amplitude gradually decreases due to resistive forces like
air resistance or friction, which cause loss of energy from the system.
• Simple pendulum oscillating in air:
Consider a simple pendulum oscillating in air. During the motion the pendulum
experiences air resistance which leads to the dissipation of energy. Hence, the amplitude of oscillations
gradually decreases and finally the pendulum comes to rest.

• Spring mass system with mass immersed in a liquid:

Consider a spring mass system in which the oscillating mass is immersed in a viscous
fluid. During the oscillations, the viscous force acting on the mass dissipates energy and reduces the
amplitude of oscillation progressively.

• LC oscillations:
When a charged capacitor is connected across an inductor, the capacitor discharges
through the inductor and then gets charged in the opposite direction. This process continues, producing
oscillatory current in the circuit called LC oscillations. If the inductor and capacitor are not ideal,
energy is dissipated in the circuit, causing the amplitude of the oscillatory current to decrease
continuously, leading to damped oscillations.

Theory of Damped oscillations:

In damped oscillations, the amplitude of free vibrations slowly decreases and finally stops due to
opposing forces like viscosity, internal friction, or air resistance. These forces are proportional to the
velocity and act in the opposite direction.

Hence in the case of damped oscillation, the forces acting on the body are,
1. The restoring force is proportional to the displacement but oppositely directed, given by
FR = - mω2x (k= mω2)
2. The damping force is proportional to the velocity and opposes the motion, given by

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 𝑑𝑥
FD = - r ( r damping constant )
𝑑𝑡
The total force, F = FR + FD
𝑑𝑥
= - mω2x - r ---------- (1)
𝑑𝑡
By Newton’s second law of motion,

𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
m = - mω2x - r
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
m +r + mω2x = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Dividing throughout by m,
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
+ (r/𝑚) 𝑑𝑡 + ω2x = 0
𝑑𝑡 2

Assume (r/m) = 2b, ( b is the damping factor)

𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
+ 2b 𝑑𝑡 +ω2x = 0 --------- (2)
𝑑𝑡 2

To solve the equation, put x = Ae αt

𝑑𝑥
Then = α Ae αt
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑥
= α 2Ae αt
𝑑𝑡 2
= α 2x

Substituting in eq 2. α 2 x + 2b α x + ω2x = 0

α 2 + 2bα + ω2 = 0

The solution of this quadratic equation is

−2𝑏 ± √4𝑏 2 − 4ω2

𝛼=
2
= - b ± √𝑏 2 − ω2

Hence the general solution is

√𝑏2 −ω2)𝑡) √𝑏2 −ω2 )𝑡)
𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑒 (−𝑏+ + 𝐵 𝑒 (−𝑏−

There are 3 possible solutions depends on whether √𝑏 2 − ω2 is positive, zero, or negative.

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1) Over damping:
▪ If b2 > ω2, √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2 is real and less than b

• Now (−𝑏 + √𝑏2 − 𝜔2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−𝑏 − √𝑏2 − 𝜔2 ) are both different and real.
• Hence the displacement dies off exponentially to zero without performing
oscillation.
• This type of motion is called over damping.

2) Critical damping:
• If b2 = ω2, √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2 = 0 (becomes zero)
• Hence both roots are real and equal.
• Then the term e –bt makes the motion non oscillatory.
• Therefore the displacement decreases exponentially and the system returns to
the equilibrium position in the shortest time without performing oscillations.
• This type of motion is called critical damping.

3) Under damping:
• If b2 < ω2, b2- ω2 is negative and √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2 becomes imaginary.
• Therefore √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2 = i√𝜔 2 − 𝑏 2
• Now (−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2 ) are complex conjugates.
• Hence the displacement performs oscillations whose amplitude gradually
decreases exponentially with time.
• This type of motion is called under damping.

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 Quality factor:

The quality factor (Q) is defined as 2π times the ratio of the energy stored in a system to the
energy lost per period.
𝐸
Q = 2π
𝑃𝑇
where E = energy stored in the system
P = power dissipated
T = time period of oscillation
Power dissipated is given by
P = E/τ τ is the relaxation time
Q = ωτ ω is the 2π/T
Thus, the quality factor is proportional to the relaxation time.

A higher value of Q means a larger relaxation time and therefore lower damping in the system.

Engineering applications of damped oscillations

1. Automatic Door closure

In a damped closing mechanism for automatic shutting pull door, a door closing mechanism includes
a screw wheel to store restoring force, a changeover device and a brake gear to produce a damping
effect is integrally combined and equipped on the frame of a moving door panel. The brake gear is to
alleviate the actuating force and moving speed of the door panel is provided by the screw wheel. The
changeover device is capable of changing the damping effect of the brake gear to generate nearby the
closing position of the door so as to alleviate col liding speed and impulse of the moving door panel
with the door post when shutting without affecting the pulling of the door panel before closing.
2. Automobile suspension springs
Dampers are a piston in a cylinder filled with oil or gas. The damper’s function is to restrain
undesirable bounce of the sprung vehicle mass and to restrain the wheel assembly from losing ground
contact by being excited at its natural frequency. If a compressed spring is released, it will continue to
oscillate back and forth through several gradually diminishing cycles until all the energy is dissipated.
This process could provide a very disturbing and dumpy ride. A properly tuned damper will allow a
compressed spring, when released, to ex tend slightly beyond its natural length or shape, then return
to rest. This is called critical damping.
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Theory of Forced oscillations:

Forced vibrations can be defined as the vibrations in which the body vibrates with a frequency
other than its natural frequency under the action of an external periodic force.
Example: Vibration of a bridge under the influence of marching soldiers
Vibrations of an electrically maintained tuning fork.
In this case the forces acting on the body are
1) The restoring force proportional to the displacement but oppositely directed
FR = -kx
𝑑𝑥
2) Resistive forces proportional to the velocity but oppositely directed, FD = -r
𝑑𝑡
3) The external periodic force FE = E sin(pt)
The total force F = FR + FD + FE

𝑑𝑥
F = - kx - r + E sin(pt)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
m +r + kx = E sin(pt)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝐸
+( ) + ( ) x = ( ) sin(pt) ----- (1) ,
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚

Dividing (1) throughout by m and let

𝑟 𝑘 𝐸
(𝑚) =2b, (𝑚) = ω2 and (𝑚) = f

𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
+ 2b 𝑑𝑡 + ω2x = f sin (pt) ----- (2) ,
𝑑𝑡 2

In the steady state, the body vibrates with the frequency of the external force.

Assume the solution, x =A sin(pt- φ)

Where angular frequency of the external periodic force and φ phase angle between the
external driving force and the displacement of the oscillator.

𝑑𝑥
= A p cos(pt- φ)
𝑑𝑡

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 𝑑2𝑥
= -Ap2 sin(pt- φ)
𝑑𝑡 2
Substituting in eqn (2)
-Ap2 sin(pt- φ)+2b Ap cos(pt- φ)+ ω2 Asin(pt- φ) = f sin(pt)
Using
sin(pt) = sin [(pt- φ)+ φ]
sin(pt) = sin(pt- φ) cos φ + cos(pt- φ) sin φ
Substituting,
A (ω2-p2) sin(pt- φ)+ 2bAp cos(pt- φ) = f sin(pt- φ) cos φ + f cos(pt- φ) sin φ
Equating coefficients on both sides
A (ω2-p2) = f cos φ ----(3)
2bAp = f sin φ -----(4)
Squaring and adding eqns (3) and (4)
A2 (ω2-p2)2 + 4b2A2p2 = f 2
𝑓2
A2 =
(𝜔2 −𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏2 𝑝2
𝑓
Hence the amplitude A= -----(5)
√ (𝜔2 −𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏2 𝑝2

Phase Relation

From equations (3) and (4),

2𝑏𝐴𝑝
tan φ = A (𝜔2−𝑝2)

2𝑏𝑝
phase φ = tan-1 (𝜔2−𝑝2 )

Special Cases:

Case 1. When p << ω (Low driving frequency)

A = f / ω2 = constant
φ = tan-1(0) = 0
Hence the force and displacement are in phase.

Case 2. When p = ω
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 Frequency of the external force is equal to the frequency of the body
A = f/2bp
Since (r/m) = 2b , (E/m) = f
A = E/rω
φ = tan-1(bp/0)
= tan-1(∞)
= π/2
Thus the displacement lags the force by π/2.
The amplitude is governed by damping and becomes large for small damping.

Case 3. When p >> ω

The frequency of the external force is greater than the natural frequency of the body
𝑓
A= = f/ p2
√ (𝑝2 )2 +4𝑏2 𝑝2

φ = tan-1(2b/p)
tan-1 (-0) = π
The amplitude goes on decreasing and phase difference tends towards π.

Resonance

Resonance occurs when the frequency of an external periodic force acting on a vibrating body becomes
equal to the natural frequency of the body. At this condition, the amplitude (maximum displacement)
of vibration becomes very large.
Examples: Swing, Radio receiver Helmholtz resonator, resonance column etc.

For a forced damped oscillator, the amplitude is maximum when the denominator of the amplitude
expression becomes minimum.
So the quantity
2
(𝜔2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 𝑝2 must be minimum.
To find the minimum value, we differentiate with respect to p and set it equal to zero.
𝑑 2
ie. ((𝜔2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 𝑝2 ) = 0
𝑑𝑝

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 8b2p - 2(𝜔2 − 𝑝2 )2p = 0
2b2 – ( 𝜔2 − 𝑝2 ) = 0
P2 = ω2 – 2b2
When damping is minimum (b ≈ 0), then
p=ω
So the driving frequency becomes equal to the natural frequency, which is the condition for
resonance.
Further, at resonance, the amplitude becomes maximum
𝐸/𝑚
Amax =
√ 4𝜔 2 𝑏 2

𝐸/𝑚
= 2𝑏𝜔

Sharpness of Resonance

When the frequency of the applied periodic force is gradually changed and becomes equal to the
natural frequency of the body, the amplitude of vibration becomes maximum. This process is called
tuning.

Sharpness of resonance describes how quickly the amplitude of vibration changes when there is a
small change in the frequency of the applied force near the resonance point.

It can be expressed as
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
Sharpness of resonance =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

If the damping in the system is very small, the amplitude increases very rapidly at resonance, and the
resonance peak becomes very sharp.

Resonance in LCR Circuits

An LCR circuit has three parts, a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor. These parts can be connected
in series or in parallel. Resonance is a condition in which the output of a circuit is maximum at a
certain frequency. In an LCR circuit, this frequency depends on the values of inductance, capacitance,
and resistance. If the inductor, capacitor, and resistor are connected in series, it is called a series
resonance circuit. If they are connected in parallel, it is called a parallel resonance circuit.

12
In a series LCR circuit, resonance occurs when the inductive and capacitive reactance are equal in
value but opposite in phase. If cancel each other, this condition is called the resonant frequency.

𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 ………….. (1)

Where,
R is the resistance; 𝑋𝐿 is the inductive reactance; 𝑋𝐶 is the capacitive reactance
At resonance,
𝑍=𝑅
⸫ 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
Substituting values in the above expression (eqn (1)) we get,
1
𝜔𝐿 =
𝜔𝐶
1
⸫ 𝜔2 = 𝐿𝐶
1
⸫ 𝜔= ……………….(2)
√𝐿𝐶

But, we know
𝜔
ν=
2𝜋
Rearranging the above expression we get,
𝜔 = 2𝜋ν ……………….(3)
Substituting equation (3) in equation (2) we get,
1
2𝜋ν =
√𝐿𝐶
The resonant frequency of an LCR circuit is given by
1
ν=
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

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 SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example 1:

A free particle is executing simple harmonic motion in a straight line. The maximum velocity it
attains during any oscillation is 62.8 m/s. Find the frequency of oscillation, if its amplitude is 0.5m.

Data:

Maximum velocity during oscillation, 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 62.8 m/s

Amplitude, A = 0.5 m.

To find:

Frequency of oscillation, ν =?

Solution:

We have the equation for free vibration,

x = A Sin (ωt)
Then,
𝑑𝑥
The velocity v= = Aω Cos ωt
𝑑𝑡

= Aω √1 − Sin2 ωt

= ω √A2 − A2 Sin2 ωt

= ω √A2 − x 2
The particle attains maximum velocity while passing through its equilibrium position, at which time,
the displacement is zero (i.e., y=0).

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ω √A2 − 0 = ωA

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
Angular frequency, ω =
𝐴

62.8
ω=
0.5

14
 ω = 125.6 rad/s

Relation between angular frequency and frequency is

ω = 2πν
ω
ν= 2π
125.6
= 2x 3.14
125.6
= 6.28

= 20 Hz.

The frequency of oscillation of the particle is 20 Hz.

Example 2:

Calculate the displacement at the end of 10 seconds, and also the amplitude of oscillation for a free
particle which is executing a simple harmonic motion in a straight line with a period of 25 seconds.
5 seconds after it has crossed the equilibrium point, the velocity is found to be 0.7m/s.

Data:
Period of oscillation, T= 25s

Velocity, v1= 0.7m/s at time t1= 5s, after crossing equilibrium position i.e (t=0).

To find:
Amplitude of oscillation
Displacement after 10 s

Solution:
Velocity in SHM
v = Aω cos ωt

Relation between period and angular frequency is

2π
ω= 𝑇

Substitute T = 25,
2 𝑋 3.14
ω= = 0.25 rad/s
25

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At time t1= 5s and v = 0.7 m/s then

0.7 = A x 0.25 x cos(0.25 x 5)

0.7 = A x 0.25 x 0.309

0.7 = A x 0.07725

A = 9.06 m

Displacement at the end of 10 seconds is obtained by

y = A sin ωt

= 9.06 x sin (0.25 x 10)

= 9.06 x 0.588

= 5.3 m

The displacement at the end of 10 seconds is 5.3 m and the amplitude of oscillation is 9.06 m.

Example 3:

A sonometer wire under tension is plucked and left free for vibrations. Find its frequency of
vibrations, if the midpoint on the string attains a maximum velocity of 1.57 m/s, when its amplitude
of oscillation is 5 mm. Treat the vibration as simple harmonic (Neglect the damping effect).

Data:

Maximum velocity, 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.57 m/s, when the amplitude, A= 5 x 10-3 m

To find:

Frequency of vibration, ν

Solution:

When the damping effect is ignored, equation of free vibrations is

y = A sin ωt,

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Velocity is the derivative of displacement

𝑑𝑥
⸫ v=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
= Aω Cos ωt
𝑑𝑡

Maximum velocity (𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) occurs when the particle passes through the equilibrium position (y=0).

⸫ 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ωA
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
ω= 𝐴

1.57
= 5 𝑋 10−3

= 314 rad/s

Relation between angular frequency and frequency is

ω = 2πν
ω
ν= 2π
314
= 2x 3.14

= 50 Hz.
⸫ Frequency of vibration of the sonometer wire is 50 Hz.

Example 4:

Calculate the frequency of oscillation for a spring if it is set for vertical oscillations with a load of
200 gm, attached to its bottom. The spring undergoes an extension of 5 cm for a load of 50 gm.
Ignore the mass of the spring.

Data:

Extension of the spring, x= 5 x 10-2 m

Load acting during extension, M = 50 x 10-3 Kg = 0.05 Kg

Load acting during oscillation, m =200 x 10-3 Kg = 0.2 Kg

17
To find:

Frequency of oscillation of the spring, ν

Solution:

𝐹
Force constant, |𝑘| = 𝑥

0.05 𝑋 9.8
= 0.05

0.49
= 0.05

= 9.8 N/m.
Angular frequency of the spring,

𝑘
ω = √𝑚

9.8
= √ 0.2

= √49

ω = 7 rad/s

Relation between angular frequency and frequency is

ω = 2πν
ω
ν= 2π
7
= 2x 3.14

= 1.11 Hz.
⸫ Frequency of oscillation of the spring is 1.11 Hz

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Example 5: Calculate the resonance frequency for a simple pendulum of length 1m.

Data:

Length of simple pendulum, L=1m.

To find:

Resonance frequency of oscillation, ν

Solution:

A simple pendulum set for oscillation, oscillates with a period,

𝐿
T = 2𝜋√𝑔

1
= 2𝜋√9.8

= 2 x 3.14 x 0.319

T =2s

⸫ The frequency of oscillation is

1
ν=𝑇

1
=2

= 0.5 Hz.

This is its natural frequency of oscillation. The resonance frequency of a system is equal to its
natural frequency. (Since the resonance frequency of a system is equal to its natural frequency when
there is no damping or negligible damping in the system.)

⸫ Resonance frequency of the simple pendulum is 0.5 Hz.

19
Example 6:

Evaluate the resonance frequency of a spring of force constant 1974 N/m, carrying a mass if 2
Kg.

Data:
Force constant, k = 1974 N/m.

Mass suspend, m = 2 Kg.

To find:

Resonance frequency, ν

Solution:

We know that resonance frequency of any system is equal to its natural frequency of
oscillation.

But the natural frequency,

𝑘
ω = √ 𝑚 and also ω = 2πν

1 𝑘
⸫ ν = √
2𝜋 𝑚

1 1974
ν = 2 𝑋 3.14 √ 2

1
= 2 𝑋 3.14 √987

31.4
= 𝟐 𝑿 𝟑.𝟏𝟒

ν = 5 Hz

Resonance frequency of the spring, ν =5 Hz

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