3.

1 Steam and its Properties

Water is a pure substance. A pure substance is one which retains its chemical composition
even though it undergoes a change in phase during a thermodynamic Process. Water can exist
in three different phases viz. Solid Phase as ice, liquid phase as water and gaseous phase as
steam. In all its three different phases it retains the same chemical composition.

Steam is the gaseous phase of water. It is the mixture of liquid and gaseous, particles in which
liquid particles are present in the form of suspension

Consider 1 kg of water at 0°C taken in a cylinder fitted with a freely moving frictionless Piston as
shown in above Fig The weight on the piston applies a constant pressure on water.

The formation of steam follows the following steps.

❖ When the water is heated at constant pressure, its temperature rises till the boiling point
is reached. This temperature is called saturation temperature(t s ). saturation

73
 temperature depends on the pressure at which water is heated. The water at this
stage is known saturated water. The amount. of heat supplied to reach this
saturation stage from 0 0C TO 100 0C is known as sensible heat or specific
enthalpy of saturated water (hf). at this stage there will be slight increase in the
volume of water. It is known as specific volume of saturated water (Vf). This
process is represented by a line AB on temperature-enthalpy diagram. This
process is called as water heating.
❖ Further addition of heat initiates the evaporation of water. During this process
temperature remains at saturation temperature(ts) This is because the water will
be saturated with heat and any further addition of heat changes only the phase from
liquid to gas. This evaporation will be continued at (ts) until the whole of water is
completely converted into steam. The amount of heat supplied during this
process is called latent heat or specific enthalpy of evaporation (hfg). The initial
formation of steam contains water particles is known as wet steam. On gradual
heating more and more water particles get evaporated. As result, the wet steam starts
transforming into dry steam. It is indicated by the line BC on T-H diagram. The steam
at C is called as dry steam. Between B & C condition of water is wet steam.
❖ The total amount of heat added to get the desired wet steam having dryness
fraction X from 0 0C is known as specific enthalpy of wet steam (H wet = hf +
Xhf). The resulting volume is known as specific volume of wet steam (V wet )
❖ The total dry steam at this stage is known as dry saturated steam (point C).
the total amount of heat added to get this dry saturated steam from 0 0c is
known as specific enthalpy of dry saturated steam (h g = hf + hfg ). The resulting
corresponding volume is known as specific volume of dry saturated steam
(Vg)

❖ On heating the steam further, increases its temperature above the saturation
temperature. The temperature of the steam above the saturation temperature at a
given pressure is called superheated temperature. During this stage the dry steam
will be heated from its dry state. The amount of heat supplied during this process
is called superheating. The resulting steam is known as superheated steam. The
amount heat added to convert day steam to superheated steam is known as
enthalpy of super heat (h sh= Cp (t sup – ts )).

74
3.1.1 Types of Steam

Steam can exist in different states. They are

[Link] steam
[Link] steam
[Link] steam
1. Wet Steam: It is one in which water molecules and steam coexist to form a two-
phase mixture at saturation temperature at a given pressure. The quality of wet
steam is indicated by the term dryness fraction.
2. Dry Saturated Steam: It is one which possess only steam particles and no water
molecules at saturation temperature and given pressure. For dry steam dryness
fraction 1.
3. Superheated Steam: it is defined as the steam is heated beyond its dry saturated
state to temperature higher than its saturated temperature at given pressure. The
quality of superheated steam is indicated by the term "degree of superheat”.

3.1.2 Definitions

Dryness Fraction

75
It is defined as the ratio of mass of the actual dry steam present in a known quantity of
wet steam to the total mass of the wet steam.

mass of dry particles

Dryness fraction X = total mss of wet steam

𝑀𝑠
= 𝑀𝑠+𝑀𝑤

ms = mass of dry steam particles

Mw = mass of water particles.

Dryness fraction of wet steam is less than 1

Dryness fraction of dry steam is 1.

Dryness fraction indicates the quality of wet steam.

Saturation Temperature: The boiling point of water at the given pressure is called
saturation temperature. It is indicated by ts in °C or K. Saturation temperature increases
with pressure.

Sensible heat or Specific enthalpy of saturated water: it is the amount of heat

supplied to l kg of water to rise its temperature from 0°C to saturation temperature
at the given pressure. It is given by hf = Cpw (ts - 273) in kJ/kg, where Cpw = Specific heat
of water = 4.2 kJ/kg K.

Latent Heat or Specific enthalpy of vaporization: It is the amount of heat required to

convert l kg of liquid into completely dry steam at saturation temperature at the given
pressure. It is represented by hfg in kJ/kg. Latent heat decreases with the increase of
pressure.

Specific Enthalpy of Superheat

The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of dry steam from its
saturation
temperature to any desired higher temperature at the given constant pressure is
called enthalpy of superheat. It is superheated by HSh

i.e. Enthalpy of superheat

76
 Hsh =Cp (Tsup - ts)

where,

Cp= specific heat of superheated steam = 2.1 kJ/kg K

Tsup = superheated temperature in °C(or) K

t s = saturated temperature in °C(or) K

Enthalpy of wet steam

It is defined as the total amount of heat supplied to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C to l kg of Wet
steam at the specified dryness fraction and given constant pressure.

i.e. Enthalpy of Wet Steam

h wet= hf + xhfg in kJ/kg

Enthalpy of dry saturated steam

It is defined as the total amount of heat supplied to convert l kg of water at 0°C into l kg
of dry steam at saturation temperature and given constant pressure

i. e Enthalpy of dry steam

h g = h f + h fg in kJ/kg

x = dryness fraction

Enthalpy of Superheated Steam

It is defined as the total amount of heat supplied to convert I kg of water at 0°C into I kg of
superheated steam at the stated superheated temperature and given constant pressure.

Enthalpy of Superheated steam

Hsup =hf +hfg +Hsh

Hsup = hg + Cp (Tsup - ts) in kJ/kg

77
Specific Volume: Specific volume is the volume occupied by the unit mass of [Link] is
in m 3 /Kg

Specific Volume of Saturated Water: It is defined as the volume occupied by 1 kg of' water
at the saturation temperature and given pressure. It is denoted by Vf(or) Vw in m 3 /Kg

Specific Volume of Dry Saturated Steam: It is defined as the volume occupied by 1 kg of

dry steam at given pressure. It is denoted by Vg (or )Vs, in m 3 /Kg

Specific Volume of Wet Steam: It is defined as the volume occupied by 1 kg of wet steam
at a given pressure.

It is given by V1s = xVg, in m 3 /Kg

Specific Volume of Superheated Steam: It is defined as the volume occupied by 1kg of

superheated steam at a given pressure and superheated temperature.

Superheated steam behaves like a perfect gas.

Applying Charle's law to the superheating stage, we gel

𝑉s 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑝
=
𝑡𝑠 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑝

𝑡𝑠𝑢𝑝
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠 ∗
𝑡𝑠

EXTERNAL WORK OF EVAPORATION

In evaporation stage, the amount of heat supplied to the water causes a large
increase in volume. This is mainly due to phase conversion or water into dry steam. This
large change in volume, makes the piston of cylinder to move doing some external work.

The fraction of the latent heat of vaporization which does an external work is called the
external of evaporation.

It is given by

Work done = pressure * specific volume

E = Pv , bar . m3/Kg [ But 1 bar = 100 KN/m2 and 1 NM = 1J]

E = 100 Pv KJ/Kg [KN/m2 *m3/Kg = KN-M/Kg = KJ/Kg]

78
So, external work of evaporation of wet steam Ewet = 100 P *X *Vg, KJ/Kg

External work of evaporation of dry steam Edry = 100 P *Vg, KJ/Kg

External work of evaporation of wet steam Esup = 100 Vu, KJ/Kg

True Latent Heat (Internal energy) of steam (U):

It is the actual heat energy retained in the system after doing external work on
piston during converting the unit mass of water into steam at required temperature.

True Latent Heat (Internal energy) of steam = latent heat of vaporization – work done

U = (h- E), KJ/Kg hence,

Internal energy of wet steam Uwet = (hwet – Ewet), KJ/Kg

Internal energy of dry steam Udry = (hdry – Edry), KJ/Kg

Internal energy of super-heated steam Usup = (hsup – Esup), KJ/Kg

Dryness Fraction

It is defined as the ratio of mass of the actual dry steam present in a known
quantity of wet steam to the total mass of the wet steam.

Dryness fraction X = mass od dry particle/mass of wet steam

𝐌𝐠
X = 𝐌𝐠+𝐌𝐰

Mg = mass of dry steam particles

Mw = mass of water particles.

Dryness fraction of wet steam is less than 1

Dryness fraction of dry steam is 1.

Dryness fraction indicates the quality of wet steam.

Wetness Fraction

79
It is measure of wetness present in the given quantity of saturated steam. It is calculated
by the

Ratio of the mass of water vapor (mw) to the total mass of wet stem.

𝑀𝑤
Wetness Fraction =𝑀𝑤+𝑀𝑔

[Note: dryness fraction + wetness fraction = 1]

Quality of steam

It representation of dryness fraction in percentage

Quality of steam = X * 100

Priming

It is representation of wetness fraction in percentage

Priming = (1-X)* 100

[Note: quality steam + priming = 100 %]

3.1.3 Steam tables

Saturated water and steam (temperature) table

It contains values of pressure, specific volume, specific enthalpy (and specific
entropy) corresponding to different temperatures. A sample of the table is given below.

Absolute Specific volume in

Temperature Specific enthalpy in kJ/kg
pressure m3/kg
in oC (t)
in bar (p) vf vg hf hfg hg

20 0.023 37 0.001002 57.838 83.9 2454.3 2538.2

40 0.073 75 0.001008 19.546 167.5 2406.9 2574.4

100 1.0133 0.001044 1.6730 419.1 2256.9 2676.0

175 8.9244 0.001121 0.21654 741.1 2030.7 2771.8

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Saturated water and steam (pressure) table
It contains values of pressure, specific volume, specific enthalpy (and specific
entropy) corresponding to different pressures (absolute). A sample of the table is given
below.

Absolute Specific volume in

Temperature Specific enthalpy in kJ/kg
pressure in m3/kg
in oC (t)
bar (p) vf vg hf hfg hg

0.15 54.00 0.001014 10.023 226.0 2373.2 2599.2

1.0133 25 100 0.001044 1.6730 419.1 2256.9 2676.0

10.0 179.9 0.001127 0.19430 762.6 2013.6 2776.2

125 327.8 0.001547 0.013518 1511.9 1166.5 2678.4

Choice of the table depends on whether we know the operating temperature or

the operating pressure.

3.1.4 Numericals

Problem 1: Determine the density of 1 kg of steam initially at a pressure of 10 bar

absolute, having a dryness fraction of 0.78. If 500 kJ of heat is added at constant pressure,
determine the condition and internal energy of the final state of steam. Take specific heat
of saturated steam as 2.1 kJ/kgK. (VTU January 2003)

Solution:
Given, m=1 kg, p=10 bar = 1000 kPa., x=0.78, heat added = 500 kJ.

81
 We know that heat added at constant pressure is nothing but increase in enthalpy.

Let, h1 = initial enthalpy,

h2 = final enthalpy,

then, h2 = h1 + heat added.

Initial enthalpy:

From steam tables, at 10 bar,

hf = 762.6 kJ/kg vg = 0.19430 m3/kg

hfg = 2013.6 kJ/kg

h1 = hf + x hfg = 762.6 + 0.78x2013.6 = 2333.2 kJ/kg

Final enthalpy:

h2 = h1 + heat added = 2333.2 + 500 = 2833.2 kJ/kg.

From steam tables, at 10 bat

hg = 2776.2 kJ/kg, tsat = 179.9oC.

Since h2 is greater than hg, steam is superheated.

Enthalpy of superheated steam:

h2 = hg + cps (Tsup – Tsat)

2833.2 = 2776.2 + 2.1 (Tsup – 179.9)

therefore, Tsup = 207oC

Specific volume of steam:

Specific volume of superheated steam,

v2 = vg . Tsup / Tsat

82
 Tsat = 179.9 + 273 = 452.9 K

Tsup = 207 + 273 = 480 K

v2 = 0.19430 x 480/452.9 = 0.20592 m3/kg.

Internal energy:

Internal energy of superheated steam,

u2 = h2 – pv2 = 2833.2 – 1000x0.20592 = 2627.2 kJ/kg.

Problem 2: what is the enthalpy of 5 kg of steam under the following conditioning? (i)
0.8 bar absolute pressure and 90% dry, and (ii) 20 bar absolute pressure at 300 oC. Take
specific heat of superheated steam as 2.25 kJ/kg. (VTU January 2004)

Solution:

(i) p = 0.8 bar, x = 90% = 0.9.

Enthalpy of wet steam per kg

h = hf + x hfg kJ/kg

For m kg,

H = m(hf + x hfg) = 5(391.7 + 0.9x2274.1) = 12191.95 kJ.

(ii) Pressure =20 bar, temperature = 300oC

From steam tables at 20 bar, tsat = 212.4oC

Since tsat is less than the temperature of steam, the steam is superheated.

From steam tables at 20 bar, hg = 2797.2 kJ/kg.

Enthalpy of superheated steam per kg

83
 hsup =hg + cPS(Tsup – Tsat)

For m kg,

Hsup =m{hg+cPS(Tsup–Tsat)}= 5{(2797.2 + 2.25(300-212.4)} = 14971.5 kJ.

Problem 3: Find the internal energy of 2.5 kg of steam at 20 bar when (i) it is wet and its
dryness fraction is 0.9, (ii) it is superheated to 350oC. Take specific heat of steam as 2.3
kJ/kgK (VTU February 2005)

Solution:

Given, m = 2.5 kg, p=20bar.

(i) steam is wet, x=0.9

From stem table at 20 bar,

hf =908.5 kJ/kg.

hfg = 1888.7 kJ/kg

. Enthalpy of wet steam

h = hf + x hfg = 908.5 + 0.9x1887.7 = 2608.33 kJ/kg.

Form steam tables at 20 bar,

vg = 0.09955 m3/kg.

Specific volume of wet steam,

v = x vg = 0.9x0.09955 = 0.089595 m3/kg.

Specific internal energy,

u = h – pv = 2608.33 – 2000x0.089595 = 2429.14 kJ/kg.

Therefore, internal energy for m kg of steam,

U = mu = 2.5x2429.14 = 6072.85 kJ.

84
(ii) steam is superheated to 350oC:

From steam tables, at 20 bar,

tsat = 212.4oC, hg = 2797.2 kJ/kg, vg = 0.09955 m3/kg.

Enthalpy of superheated steam,

hsup =hg + cPS(Tsup – Tsat) = 2797.2 (350-212.4) = 3113.68 kJ/kg.

Specific volume of superheated steam,

vsup = vg . Tsup / Tsat

Tsup = 350 + 273 = 623 K

Tsat = 212.4 + 273 = 485.4 K

v sup= 0.09955 x 623/485.4 = 0.12777 m3/kg.

Specific internal energy,

usup = hsup – pvsup = 3113.68 – 2000x0.12777 = 2858.13 kJ/kg.

Therefore, internal energy for m kg of steam,

Usup = musup = 2.5x2858.13 = 7145.34 kJ.

Problem 4: Steam is at 9 bar pressure and dryness fraction 0.98. Find the quality and
temperature of steam when (i) the steam looses 50 kJ/kg at constant pressure, and (ii)
steam receives 150 kJ/kg at constant pressure. (VTU July 2005)

Solution:

From steam tables, at 9 bar,

hf =742.6 kJ/kg,

hfg = 2029.5 kJ/kg,

hg = 2772.1 kJ/kg,

85
 tsat = 175.4oC,

Given,

x1 = 0.98.

Initial enthalpy of steam,

h1 = hf + x1hfg = 742.6 + 0.98x2029.5 = 2731.51 kJ/kg.

(i) Steam looses 50 kJ/kg at constant pressure,

h2 = h1 – 50 = 2731.51 – 50 = 2681.51 kJ/kg.

Since h2 is less than hg, steam is wet.

Enthalpy of wet steam,

h2 = hf + x2hfg

2681.51 = 742.6 + x2x2029.5

x2 = 0.955.

(ii) Steam receives 150 kJ/kg of heat.

h2 = h1 + 150 = 2731.51 + 150 = 2881.51 kJ/kg.

Since h2 is greater than hg, steam is superheated.

Enthalpy of superheated steam,

h2 = hg + cps(tsup – tsat)

2881.51 = 2772.1 + 2.1 (tsup – 175.4)

tsup = 227.5oC.

Problem 5: 2 kg of wet steam is heated at a constant pressure of 2 bar until its

temperature increases to 150oC. The heat transferred is 2100 kJ. Find the initial dryness
fraction of steam. Take the specific heat of steam as 2.1 kJ/kg. The properties of steam at
2 bar pressure are given below-

86
 p ts vf vg hf hg

(bar) (oC) (m3/kg) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg)

2 120.23 0.001061 0.8857 504.5 2706.5

(VTU January 2006)

Solution:

Given, m=2 kg, p = 2 bar = 2000 kPa. T2=150oC, heat added = 2100 kJ.

hfg =hg - hf = 2706.5 – 504.5 = 2202 kJ/kg.

Since t2 is greater than tsat, steam is superheated in the final state.

Enthalpy of superheated steam,

h2 = hg + cp (tsup – tsat) = 2706.5 + 2.1 (150-120.3) = 2769.2 kJ/kg.

Total heat added = 2100 kJ.

Heat added per kg of steam = 2100/2 = 1050 kJ/kg.

Final enthalpy of steam,

h2 = h1 + 1050 kJ/kg.

Therefore,

h1 = h2 – 1050 = 2769.2 – 1050 = 1719.2 kJ/kg.

Since h1 is less than hg, steam is wet.

Enthalpy of wet steam,

h1 = hf + x1hfg

1719.2 = 504.5 + x1x2202

Initial dryness fraction,

x1 = 0.5516

87
3.2 Boilers
Boiler is a closed vessel in which the given fluid is heated and evaporated. Steam boiler is one in
which water is evaporated. It is also called as steam generator.

The function of steam boiler is to supply the steam at the required constant pressure with
its quality either dry or as nearly dry, or superheated.

3.2.1 Classification of boilers

I. According to types of tubes

❖ Fired tube boiler, Ex: Cochran Boiler, Lancashire boiler, Cornish boiler, Scotch boiler
❖ Water tube boiler Ex: Bobcock and Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler.
II. According to the location of furnace

❖ Internally fired boiler Ex: Cornish, Cochran boiler

❖ Externally fired boilers Ex: Bobcock and Wilcox boilers
III. According to the axis of boiler drum

❖ Vertical boilers Ex: Scotch, Cochran boilers

❖ Horizontal boiler Ex: Locomotive Boiler, Lancashire boiler
IV. According to circulation of water

❖ Natural Circulation Ex: Cochran, Bobcock and Wilcox boiler

❖ Forced circulation Ex: Lamont, Benson boiler
V. According to use

❖ Stationary boilers Ex: Boiler in power plant

❖ Mobile boilers Ex: Locomotive and Marine boilers
VI. According to the pressure

❖ Low pressure boilers Ex: Cornish, Cochran

❖ High pressure boilers Ex: Lamont, Benson boilers.

[Link] FIRE TUBE BOILERS

In the fire tube boilers, the hot flue gases produced by the combustion of fuels are led
through a tube or a nest of tubes around which the water circulates. Fire tube boilers are
suitable for steady working pressure up to 20 bars.

88
Ex: Cochran boiler, Cornish boiler, Lancashire boiler

Lancashire Boiler

Figure: Lancashire Boiler

Lancashire boiler is a horizontal, internally fired, natural circulation fire tube boiler. This
boiler produces steam up to a pressure of 15 bar. Its capacity is 8500 kg of steam per
hour. It is used widely in sugar mills and chemical industries. The construction of
Lancashire boiler is shown in Fig.

WORKING

The boiler shell is filled with water to 3/4 of its volume. The fuel is charged through the
furnace door onto the grate and burnt. The hot gases produced from the combustion of
fuel pass through the flue tubes from the front end to the rear end of the boiler. This is
called first run of flue gases. In the first run about 83% of total heat is transferred to
the water. Then the gases pass down ward and unite in the bottom central channel and
travel from rear end to the front end of the boiler. This is called second run of the gases.
In this run 9.5% of total heat is transferred to the water. Now the hot gases divide at the

89
front end of the boiler and enter into the side channels 1 & 2 and travel from front end
to rear end of the boiler. This is called third run of the flue gases. In this run about 7.5%
of heat is transferred to the water. Now the gases from channel (1) & (2) unite in the
rear passage and make their exit to the atmosphere through a chimney.

Since heat is transferred to the water in all sides of the boiler, water gets evaporated
producing steam. Steam is accumulated in the steam space and is taken out through a
steam stop value.

The boiler is mounted with essential mountings and accessories like steam stop valve,
safety valve, blow off valve etc.

Advantages

1. It is economical, easy to operate, clean and inspect.

2. Low maintenance lost.
3. Load fluctuation can be easily met due to large water storage.
4. Overall efficiency is high (85%) due to super heater and economizer.
Disadvantages

1. Steam generation is slow

2. Occupies more space
3. Low pressure boiler

[Link] Water tube boilers

In water tube boilers, the water circulates inside the tubes while the hot gases produced
by the combustion of fuels pass around them. Water tube boilers are more suitable than
the fire tube for the generation of steam at very high pressures

Ex: Bobcock and Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler etc.

90
Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

Bobcock and Wilcox boiler is a horizontal, externally fired, naturally circulation,

stationary, water tube boiler.

The main parts of the boiler are shown in Fig

Figure: Babcock & Wilcox Boiler

Working

The furnace of the boiler is located below the uptake header. The coal is fed through the
fire door onto the grate and is fired. Due to combustion of coal, large quantity of gases is
generated. These hot gases flow over the steel tubes as shown by arrows in figure.

Baffles are provided to deflect the hot flue gases so that they travel a long way and cover large
heating surface. During this path of the hot gases, heat is transferred to the water tubes and makes
the water to evaporate.

The water and the steam mixture from these portions ascends through the uptake header and reaches
the boiler drum

Due to this, a continuous circulation of water is established between the boiler drum and

91
the water tubes. The steam gets separated from the surface of the water in the boiler drum and
accumulates in the steam space.

A super heater is provided in the path of flue gases which heats the steam again. Tile boiler is
mounted with mountings such as water level indicator, pressure gauge, safety valve etc at shown
as their appropriate place.

The capacity of the boiler is 20000 to 40000 kg/hr. Working pressure is 10 to 70 bar

. Advantages:

1. The defective tubes can be replaced easily

2. The draughts loss is comparatively minimum
3. Boiler may expand and contact freely.

3.2.2 Boiler mountings

The boiler mountings are necessary for the proper function & safety of a boiler.

• Safety valve

• Water level indicator

• Pressure gauge  Blow off valve

• Steam stop valve

• Feed check valve

3.2.3 Boiler accessories

Boiler accessories are auxiliary parts used in steam boilers for their proper functioning
and to improve the efficiency of the power plant.
• Super heater

• Economizer

• Air pre-heater

• Steam separator

• Steam trap

1. Safety Valves:

92
 Location: Top of the boiler shell.

Function: Protect the boiler against the high pressure of steam, if the pressure inside
the boiler increases beyond the designed pressure, the safety valve automatically
opens and allows the excess steam to come out, preventing the explosion of boiler.

2. Water Level Indicators:

Location: It is fitted at the front end of the boiler to the water space.

Function: It indicates the level of water in the boiler drum and guide boiler
attendant to maintain a constant level of water in the boiler.

3. Fusible Plu g :
Location: It is fitted over the crown of the furnace or combustion chamber.

Function: It is used to extinguish the fire in the furnace of the boiler when the
water level falls too much below the normal level.

4. Pressure Gauge:
Location: It is mounted in the front end at the top of the boiler.

Function: It indicates the pressure of the steam in the boiler.

5. Feed Check Valve:

Location: It is fitted in the feed water pipe line close to the boiler.

Function: It is used to feed the water into the boiler continuously. It also regulates
the rate of flow of feed water.

6. Blow-off cock:
Location: It is fitted at the lowest part of the boiler

Function: It is used to remove periodically the sediments collected at the

bottom of the boiler while in operation. It also used to empty the water in the
boiler when required for periodical cleaning and inspection.

7. Steam Stop Valve:

Location: It is mounted on the boiler shell above the steam space.

93
 Function: regulates the flow of steam from the boiler to the steam or turbines and
shut the steam flow when not required.

8. Economizer:
Location: It is fitted near the chimney.

Function: Its function is to heat the feed water using exhaust hot flue gases.

9. Air Pre-heater:
Location: It is fitted in between the economizer and chimney

Function: It supplies the hot air to the furnace by absorbing the heat from the hot
exhaust gases and accelerates the combustion of fuel.

10. Super Heater:

Location: It is fitted in the path of hot flue gases from the furnace.

Function: It absorbs the heat from the hot flue gases and superheat the saturated
steam without changing its pressure.

11. Chimney:
Location It is built at the exit end of the hot flue gases.

Function: It exhausts the products of combustion to the atmosphere and draws the
hot gases from the boiler.

12. Feed Pump:

Location: It is provided between feed water tank and
boiler drum. Function: It pumps the water from the feed
water tank into the boiler.

13. Steam Separator:

Location: It is fitted very close to the steam turbine on the main supply pipe.

Function It separates the water particles from the steam flowing in the pipe line
before it enters the turbine.

14. Steam Trap:

Location: It is connected to a small by-pass pipe which branches off from the main
steam pipe line.

94
 Function: It is used to drain off the condensed water accumulating in the steam
pipe lined without allowing the high-pressure steam to escape through it.

3.3 Steam Turbine

A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from
pressurized steam, and converts it into useful mechanical work. A steam turbine is a
prime mover in which rotary motion is obtained by the gradual change of momentum of
the steam. Steam turbines are primarily used to run alternators or generators in thermal
power plants. It is also used to rotate the propeller of ships through reduction gearing.

3.3.1 Main parts of a steam turbine:-

Nozzle :In steam turbines, normally, convergent-divergent type of nozzles is used.

When steam flows through the nozzles, there is a pressure drop, which is converted into
velocity or kinetic energy. The nozzles also guide the steam in the proper direction to
strike the blades. The nozzles are kept very close to the blades to minimize the losses.

Rotor: The rotor or runner consists of a circular disc fixed to a horizontal shaft.

Blade :On the periphery of the rotor, a large no of blades are fixed. The steam jet
from the nozzles impinges on the surface of the blades due to which the rotor rotates.

Casing: It is a steam tight steel casing which encloses the rotor, blades etc. In a
multistage turbine , the casing also accommodates the fixed blades.

3.3.2 Classification of steam turbine

Steam turbines can be classified in to two types.

i) Impulse turbine

ii) Reaction turbine

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Single stage impulse turbine (De-Laval turbine)
The pressure energy is converted into velocity energy or kinetic energy by the expansion
of steam through a set of nozzles. Normally, in steam turbines, convergent-divergent
nozzles are used. The kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy with the help
of moving blades, fixed on the rotor. The rotor is connected to the output shaft. All these
parts are enclosed in a casing.

This turbine is not suitable for practical purposes, since high-pressure steam expands in
one set of nozzles and get converted to very high velocity steam, due to this the rotor will
rotate at a very high speed. So in practice, multistage impulse turbines or compound
turbines are used.

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Reaction turbine (Parson turbine)
The reaction turbine, as the name implies, is turned by reactive force rather than
by a direct push or impulse. In reaction turbines, the blades that project radially from the
periphery of the rotor are formed and mounted so that the spaces between
the blades will have the nozzle shape. Since these blades are mounted on the revolving
rotor, they are called moving blades. Fixed or stationary blades of the same shape as the
moving blades are fastened to the casing in which the rotor revolves. The fixed blades
guide the steam into the moving blade. A reaction turbine is moved by three main
forces: (1) the reactive force produced on the moving blades as the steam increases in
velocity as it expands through the fixed blades. (2) The reactive force produced on
the moving blades when the steam changes its direction.

Difference between impulse turbine and reaction turbine

Impulse turbine Reaction turbine

Complete expansion of steam takes place Partial expansion of steam takes place in
in the nozzle the fixed blades and further expansion
takes place in the moving blades.

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 Blades are symmetrical in shape Blades are non symmetrical in shape i.e.,
aerofoil section

The rotor runs at higher speeds The rotor runs at relatively low speed.

The impulse turbines are used for small The reaction turbines are used in large
power generation plant. power generation plant.

Less floor area is required.(small power More floor area is required.(Medium and
plant) large power plant)

The pressure of steam remains constant The pressure of steam drops from inlet to
from inlet to the outlet of the blade. the outlet of the blade

3.4 Water turbines

Introduction: Water turbines were developed in the nineteenth century and were widely
used for industrial power prior to electrical grids. Now they are mostly used for electric
power generation. They harness a clean and renewable energy source.
A hydraulic turbine is a machine, which converts pressure energy in to mechanical
energy. It uses the kinetic energy end potential energy of water and sets the rotor in
motion by the dynamic action of water flowing from high head.

3.4.1 Classification of hydraulic turbines

The classification of water turbines are as follows.
1. According to the type of energy at inlet
i) Impulse turbine
ii) Reaction turbine
2. According to the direction of flow of water through the runner
i) Tangential flow
ii) Radial inward flow
iii) Radial outward flow
iv) Axial flow
v) Mixed flow

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[Link] to the head under which turbine works
i) High head, Impulse turbine Ex: pelton wheel.
ii) Medium head, reaction turbine Ex: Francis turbine.
iii) Low head, reaction turbine: Ex: Kaplan turbine.
4. According to the specific speed of the turbine
i) Low specific speed turbine, impulse turbine. Ex: pelton wheel.
ii) Medium specific speed, reaction turbine. Ex: Francis turbine.
iii) High specific speed, reaction turbine. Ex: Kaplan turbine
5. According to the position of the shaft
i) Horizontal shaft
ii) Vertical shaft

[Link] Impulse turbine

In impulse turbine a high-velocity jet of water hits a series of specially shaped
cups on the runner. Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet. The jet impinges
on the turbine's curved blades which reverse the flow. The resulting change in
momentum (impulse) causes a force on the turbine blades. Since the turbine is spinning,
the force acts through a distance (work) and the diverted water flow is left with
diminished energy. Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the water's pressure (potential
energy) is converted to kinetic energy by a nozzle and focused on the turbine. No pressure
change occurs at the turbine blades, and the turbine doesn't require a housing for
operation

Pelton wheel
Pelton wheel, a type of impulse turbine, named after L. A. Pelton who invented it
in 1880. Water passes through nozzles and strikes cups arranged on the periphery of a
runner, or wheel, which causes the runner to rotate, producing mechanical energy. The
runner is fixed on a shaft, and the rotational motion of the turbine is transmitted by the
shaft to a generator. Pelton turbines are suited to high head, low flow applications; they
are used in storage power stations (dams) with downward gradients above 300 meters.

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[Link] Reaction turbines
Reaction turbines are acted on by water, which changes pressure as it moves
through the turbine and gives up its energy. They must be encased to contain the water
pressure (or suction), or they must be fully submerged in the water flow. Newton's third
law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines. Most water turbines in use are
reaction turbines. They are used in low and medium head applications.

Francis turbine
It is a reaction turbine working under medium head handling medium quantity of
water. Francis turbines can either be volute-cased or open-flume machines. The spiral
casing is tapered to distribute water uniformly around the entire perimeter of the
runner and the guide vanes feed the water into the runner at the correct angle. Thus,
water possessing pressure and kinetic energy enters the runner vanes in the radial

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 direction and leaves in the axial direction. The runner blades are profiled in a complex
manner and direct the water so that it exits axially from center of the runner. In doing
so the water imparts most of its pressure energy to the runner before leaving the
turbine via a draft tube.

The Francis turbine is generally fitted with adjustable guide vanes. These regulate
the water flow as it enters the runner and are usually linked to a governing system which
matches flow to turbine loading in the same way as a spear valve or deflector plate in a
Pelton turbine. When the flow is reduced the efficiency of the turbine falls away.

Kaplan turbine
The Kaplan turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine, which means that the
working fluid changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy.
The design combines radial and axial [Link] inlet is a scroll-shaped tube that wraps
around the turbine's wicket gate (guide vanes) . Water is directed tangentially, through
the guide vanes, and spirals on to a propeller shaped runner, causing it to [Link] outlet
is a specially shaped draft tube that helps decelerate the water and recover kinetic
[Link] turbine does not need to be at the lowest point of water flow, as long as the
draft tube remains full of water. Variable geometry of the guide vanes and turbine blades

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allow efficient operation for a range of flow conditions. Kaplan turbine efficiencies are
typically over 90%, but may be lower in very low head applications.

3.4.2 Comparison of impulse and reaction water turbine

IMPULSE TURBINE REACTION TURBINE

Available energy is completely converted The available energy is Partially

in to kinetic energy in the nozzle converted in to kinetic energy in the fixed
blade and partially in the moving blades

The water comes out from the nozzle and In reaction turbine, water first enters the
directly impinges on the runner. fixed blades and then enters the moving
blades.

The pressure of the water flowing from The pressure of the water reduces while
inlet to the outlet of runner remains flowing from inlet to the outlet of runner
constant (atmospheric pressure). (less than atmospheric).

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 Turbine can be installed above the tail Turbine is submerged in water below tail
race. race.

Casing is provided to prevent splashing of Air tight casing is provided to prevent the
water pressure leakage.

Power developed is mainly due to kinetic Power developed is partly by change in

energy. kinetic energy and partly due to pressure
energy.

Impulse turbine requires high head Reaction turbine requires low head.

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