Soil profile, Structure, and properties;

Determination of soil properties;

Fertility of the soil

2
 Soil profile

Soil is that part of the earth's crust in which the roots of plants
grow. It is a vital, living component of the environment–a
component that can be manipulated to affect crop performance.
When soil is misused, crops become less productive; when
handled with due consideration for its biological and physical
nature, it can continue to yield crops throughout countless
generations of cultivation and use.

3
Definition of Soil

“Soil is a natural body composed of inorganic and organic constituents,

having a definite genesis and a distinct nature of its own”-- Dokuchaev
(1900)

“Soil is a natural occurring body that has been evolved owing to combined
influence of climate and other organisms, acting on parent material, as
conditioned by relief over a period of time” --Jenny (1941)

4
 Functions of soil
i. Support growth of higher plants
ii. Primary factor controlling fate of water in hydrologic system
iii. Nature’s recycling system
iv. Habitat for organisms
v. Engineering medium
Soil has 3 primary functions in sustaining plant life:
1. It supplies mineral elements, serving both as a medium of
exchange and as a place of storage.
2. It supplies water and serves as a storage reservoir.
3. It serves as a medium within which the roots of terrestrial
plants, as well as those of many aquatic plants, attach
themselves.
5
 Soil horizons
• Soils consist of one or more distinct layers called horizons.

If a vertical cut is made in a soil, several layers, or horizons, can be

viewed.

• The differentiation of horizons is the result of many soil-forming

processes. Most importantly:
(1) physical breakdown of particles,
(2) leaching of salts that are more or less soluble,
(3) accumulation of organic matter,
(4) chemical weathering of primary minerals and the formation of
silicate clay minerals
(5) translocation of silicate clay minerals from one horizon to another
by percolating water, and
(6) accumulation of some iron colloids.
Some of these processes take place in all the soils, but the number of
active processes and the degree of their activity vary from one soil
to another. 6
 Soil profile
The layers are referred to as O, A, E, B, C and R depending on their
position and nature.

• O: The O horizon is an organic layer above the

mineral soil that consists of fresh or partially
decomposed organic material and is most
common in forested soils.
• A: It usually has more organic carbon than
underlying layers and is the horizon most
impacted by biological and human activity.
Sometimes this layer is missing or truncated due
to erosion or removal. Also, all surfaces resulting
from plowing, pasturing, or similar disturbances
are referred to as A horizons. It usually has
darker color than the rest of the profile.

7
 Soil profile
E: Horizon characterized by eluviations (removal of materials
such as silicate clay, iron, aluminum, or organic matter), if
distinct from the A horizon. Frequently not present (usually not
present in grassland/agricultural soils). Usually more pale
colored than the A horizon.

B: This is dominated by destruction of all or much of the original

rock structure and which shows evidence of soil formation such
as illuvial (moved down from an above horizon) concentration of
silicate clay, iron, aluminum, humus, carbonates, gypsum, or
silica; development of soil color or structure; or brittleness, etc.
Material from the A (or E) horizon, such as clay and carbonates,
leach downward and accumulate in the B horizon.

C: Horizons or layers, excluding hard bedrock, which is little,

affected by pedogenic (soil forming) processes and that lack
properties of O, A, E or B horizons.

R: Hard bed rock

8
 Soil components
Soil consists of four major components i.e., inorganic or mineral
materials, organic matter, soil water and soil air .
Soil water and soil air are held in pore space
In a representative loam surface soil, the solid mineral particles
comprise about 45% of the soil volume and organic matter 5%.
At optimum moisture for plant growth, the pore space is divided roughly
in half, 25 %, of volume being water space and 25 % air.

9
 Soil components
a) Mineral (40–50%) :
Mineral soils are composed of three major constituents: sand, silt and
clay.

i. Sand (0.05–2.00 mm)

ii. Silt (0.002–0.05 mm)
iii. Clay ( < 0.002 mm)

Sand (gritty) silt (powdery) clay (sticky)

10
 Soil components
b) Organic Matter (0–10%)
i. Flora and fauna
ii. Live and dead (organic matter)
iii. Macroscopic and microscopic

It comprises disintegrated and decomposed plant and animal residues and

other organic compounds synthesized by soil microbes as the decay occurs.
It is a transitory soil constituent as it is continuously broken down by soil
organisms and lasts from few hours to several hundred years.
It requires maintenance by regular addition to the soil of plant and/ or animal
residues.
Organic matter content varies from 1.0 to 6.0 % by weight in top soil and very
less in sub soil. In respect of soil productivity organic matter plays an
indispensable role.

11
 Soil components

c) Pore space ~50%

Pore space consists of the “empty” spaces in the soil. The pore
space is a very important part of the soil. Pore space might be
filled with one of two things:
i. Air
ii. Water

12
 Soil components
Soil water
Soil water is held in soil pores with varying degrees of tenacity
depending on the amount
of water present and size of the pores.
Soil water with its soluble constituents (nutrients) makes up soil
solution, which is the critical medium for supplying nutrients to
growing plants.
Soil water plays significant role in controlling energy balance of the
soil and regulates the gaseous exchange in the upper layer of the
soil.
The presence of water in different amounts in soil governs its
thermal, mechanical, physical, chemical and biological properties.
13
 Soil components
Soil Air
The content and composition of soil air are determined largely by the
water content of the soil, since the air occupies those soil pores not filled
with water.
Soil air always differs from atmosphere air in composition because of
moisture content, root and microbial activities.
 Relative humidity may approach 100% at optimum soil moisture
 CO2 content is often several hundred times higher than 0.033%
 Oxygen content usually <20%.
In cases of low soil air, the diffusion rate of air in to and out of the soil
would be slow and this leads to unsatisfactory conditions for optimum
plant growth.

14
 Physical properties of soil
1. Colour
Colour gives a ready clue to soil conditions and some important
properties. It is either due to mineral or organic matter and mostly to both.
Red, yellow or brown colors are usually related to the different degrees of
oxidation, hydration and diffusion of iron oxides in the soil.
Dark colors of a soil are due to:
Poor drainage conditions, content and state of decomposition of organic
matter, the presence of titaniferous magnetite etc.
Uniformity in nomenclature of colors is possible by comparing the soils
with charts containing standard colours. One such chart is the Munsell
Colour Chart. It consists of coloured chips arranged according to hue,
value and chroma, the three simple variables that combine to give the
colour. The hue refers to the dominant spectral colour, the value to relative
lightness of colour and chroma to relative purity.
15
Munsell Colour Chart

16
2. Density
Soils having larger particles are usually heavier in weight per unit volume
than those having smaller particles. True density of a soil is based on the
individual densities of soil constituents and according to their
proportionate contribution. The bulk density or apparent density is the
weight per unit volume of dry soil as a whole i.e. particle and pore space
and hence it is lower than the true density. The relationship between the
true density (T) and the apparent density (A) and the pore space (P) is
as follows:
P % = (T-A) x 100/T
In most mineral soils the true density varies within narrow limits of about
2.5 to 2.7 and the apparent density between 1.4 and 1.8.

17
3. Pore space
The pore space of soil is the portion occupied by air and water and it is
determined largely by structural conditions. Sands have low pore space
of about 30%, whereas clays may have as much as 50-60%. Although
clays possess greater total porosity than the sands the pore spaces in
the latter being individually larger are more conducive to good drainage
and aeration.
4. Plasticity and cohesion
Plasticity is the property that enables a moist soil to change shape on the
application of force and retain this shape even when the force is
withdrawn. On this basis, sandy soils may be considered to be non-
plastic and clayey soils to be plastic. Cohesion is the tendency of the
particles to stick to one another. Plastic soils are cohesive. Plasticity and
cohesion reflect the soil consistency and workability of the soils.
18
5. Soil temperature and heat
Soil temperature is one of the important factors that control the
microbiological activity and all the processes involved in the growth of
plants. Heat is necessary for seed germination, root growth and other
biological activities. The temperature needed for germination and root
growth varies with crops and varieties. Crops, e.g. wheat, barley, and
peas grown in India during winter germinate at relatively low
temperatures as compared with maize, and those at which groundnut or
cotton germinate. Microbiological activities are retarded by low soil
temperature. As a result, the nitrification processes in the soil are
slowed down and plant nutrition and growth adversely affected.

19
Soil profile
Structure, and properties;
Determination of soil properties;
Fertility of the soil

2
 Soil Structure
• Soil Structure may be defined as ‘the arrangement of
primary particles (sand, silt and clay), secondary
particles (aggregates) and voids (pores) in to a certain
definite pattern under field conditions’.
• Soil Structure denotes:
• a) the size, shape and arrangement of particles and
aggregates;
• b) the size, shape and arrangement of the voids or spaces
separating the particles and aggregates;
• c) the combination of voids and aggregates in to various
types of structures.
 TYPES OF STRUCTURE
• As per the geometric shape, the aggregates can be broadly divided
in to two types.
1. Simple structure
2. Compound structure

1. Simple structure: In this the natural cleavage plains are absent or

indistinct.
Sands and gravels, examples of soils with a simple structure,
have very little cohesion, plasticity, and consistency (the resistance of
the particles in the soil to separation. Simple-structured soils are
usually composed of materials that are relatively resistant to
weathering, such as quartz sand. They, are also said to have a
single-grain structure.
• [Link] Structure: The natural cleavage plains
are distinct.

• Most agricultural soils have a compound structure;

their particles aggregate, or stick together.
 Spheroidal
• Small rounded peds with irregular faces and are usually
separated from each other in a loosely packed
arrangement.

• When spheroidal peds are porous, the structure is called

as Crumb, while less porous peds are called granular.
Usually granular peds are <1cm, while crumb peds
are<0.5 cm in diameter. The diameter typically ranged from
1.0 to 10.0 mm.

• Granular and crumb structures are characteristic of many

surface soils (A horizon) particularly those high in organic
matter. They are prominent in grassland soils and soils that
have been worked by earth worms.

• This structure is invariably subjected to management

practices.
 Platy Structure

• Plate like: Relatively thin horizontal peds or plates

characterize this structure.
• The thicker units are called Platy and thinner ones
are called Laminar. The platy types are often
inherited from parent materials, especially those laid
down by water or ice.
• Sometimes, compaction of clayey soils with heavy
machinery can create platy structure. Found in
surface layers of some virgin soils.
 Block Like
• Blocky peds are irregular, roughly cube -like and range
from 5 to 50 mm across.
• The individual block are not shaped independently but are
molded by the shapes of the surrounding blocks.
• When the edges of the blocks are sharp and rectangular faces
distinct, they are called angular blocky, and when faces and
edges are some what rounded they are referred as
subangular blocky.
• These types are usually found in B horizons, where they
promote good drainage, aeration and root penetration.
 Prism – Like
• These are vertically oriented pillar like peds with varying
heights among different soils and may have a diameter of 150
mm or more.
• In columnar structure pillars have distinct rounded tops,
and in invariably found in subsoils high in sodium (nitric
horizon).
• If the tops of the pillars are relatively angular and flat
horizontally, the structure is designated as Prismatic.
• These structures are associated with swelling types of clay
and commonly occur in sub surface horizons in arid and semi-
arid regions.
 Texture
• Non-technical definition: How the soil feels
• Technical definition: An expression that characterizes the relative amounts
of sand, silt and clay in the soil.
Soil separates
• i. Sand: gritty, Grainy, Coarse
• ii. Silt: floury when dry, greasy when wet
• iii. Clay
Properties of clays
• Sticky (adhesion—sticks to other things) (target demonstration)
• Plastic (cohesion—sticks to itself) (ribbon demonstration)
• Shrink-swell (slinky demonstration)
• Large surface area, due to layers and to size (block demonstration)
• Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
• Clay has net negative charge, attracts cations (positive ions; ions are broken
molecules. Certain ions serve as plant nutrients)
 Textural class

• The varying proportions of particles of different size groups

in a soil constitute what is termed as a textural class.
• The principal textural classes are: Clay, sandy clay, silty
clay, clay loam, sandy clay loam, silty clay loam, loam,
sandy loam, silt loam, sand, loamy sand and silt.
Texture Triangle
METHODS OF DETERMINATION OF SOIL TEXTURE

• FIELD or FEEL METHOD

• PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS / MECHANICAL ANALYSIS

FIELD or FEEL METHOD
 PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS / MECHANICAL ANALYSIS
• There are two steps in mechanical analysis

• a. Dispersion b. Sedimentation

• Dispersion:
(1) Dispersion of soil particles is achieved by breaking down the cementing agents
viz., organic matter, calcium carbonate and iron oxides; and flocculating agents
like salts and ions.

(2) Removal of organic matter is usually achieved by oxidation with hydrogen

peroxide.

(3) Calcium carbonate can be dissolved by addition of dilute hydrochloric acid.

(4) Treating the soil with sodium citrate. Sodium bicarbonate and sodium dithionate
does remove iron and aluminum oxides, which are significantly present in red and
laterite soils. Through repeated washings salts and ions can be eliminated.

(5) Dispersion or deflocculation is carried by means of a chemical dispersing agent

like sodium hexametaphosphate and by mechanical agitation. Other commonly
used dispersing agents are sodium oxalate, sodium phosphate, and sodium
metaphosphate and sodium pyrophosphate.

• Now particles of 2 to 0.2 mm (coarse sand ) are separated by sieving through 0.2 mm
sieve. For separation of remaining particle sedimentation technique is used
 Sedimentation
• It is based on measuring the relative settling velocities of particles of
various sizes from aqueous suspension. In a given medium larger
particles settle more quickly than smaller ones of the same density.

• 1. Robinson’s Pipette Method:

• Also called as International pipette method.

• It is based on the sedimentation principle i.e., particles with different

sizes and weights fall at different velocities.

• In this method a definite volume of soil suspension is taken from a

required depth at definite time intervals using Robinson’s pipette.

• At 25ºC a sample collected at 4min 15 sec time at 10 cm depth in the

sedimentation cylinder contains silt and clay particles, while sample
collected at 7 hrs 6 min interval contains only clay fraction.

• After drying the samples to constant weight silt and clay contents can
be calculated. Fine sand left at the bottom can be separated out, dried
and weighed.
23
2) Bouyoucos Hydrometer Method :
• It is based on the principle that there is a continuous decrease in
the density of soil suspension over a period of time. So by
knowing the density of soil suspension at required time intervals
with a calibrated hydrometer the proportion of different fractions
can be known.
• The pipette method is regarded as the standard method for
particle size analysis because of its accuracy.
• It is however very time consuming and difficult to be employed in
mechanical analysis of large no. of samples.
• The hydrometer method is rapid but less accurate than the
pipette method. This method gives erroneous results in soils
having high CaCO3 and organic matter contents and high
salinity.
 Significance of Soil Texture
• Knowledge of texture of the soil is important to asses the value of the land
• Texture determines the suitability of land to raise different crops in different
seasons and for foundation of buildings and construction of roads.
• Texture determines the total pore space and the distribution of macro and
micro pores of soil, which in turn influence the retention and transmission of
water as well as air. Texture has pronounced effect on soil temperature.
• Soil texture largely governs the nutrient holding and nutrient supplying
abilities of the soils.
• It is the most stable property and used as an index of several other
properties of soils, which determines the agricultural potential of the soils.
• It helps in evaluating the amount of amendment needed for the soil
reclamation.
• Soil texture is of considerable importance in the study of morphology,
genesis of soil, classification and mapping.
 Soil Consistency
• Soil consistence provides a means of describing the degree and kind of
cohesion and adhesion between the soil particles as related to the
resistance of the soil to deform or rupture. Consistence evaluation includes
rupture resistance and stickiness.

• Soil consistency is defined as the relative ease with which a soil can be
deformed use the terms of soft, firm, or hard.

• The rupture resistance is a field measure of the ability of the soil to

withstand an applied stress or pressure as applied using the thumb and
forefinger.

• Soil consistency depends on the texture, nature and amount of inorganic

and organic colloids, structure and moisture content etc. With decreasing
moisture content, the soils lose their stickiness and plasticity and become
friable and soft and finally when dry become hard and coherent.

• Consistency is expressed based on moisture levels like wet, moist and dry
 Wet soils

• Soils are saturated with water. The common characteristics

of wet soil are;
• Stickness (property of stickiness or adherence to various
objects) Non –sticky, Slightly sticky, Sticky, Very sticky.
• Plasticity (property of toughness and Capacity of soil to be
molded) Non plastic, Slightly plastic, Plastic, Very plastic.
 Moist soils

• Moist consistency is determined, at a moisture content

approximately mid way between air-dry and field capacity.

• Soil consistency may be:

• Loose (non-coherent)

• Very friable (soil material crushed under very gentle pressure;

coheres when pressed together)

• Friable (soil material crushed easily under gentle pressure)

• Firm (soil material crushes under moderate pressure between

thumb and forefinger, resistance is distinctly noticeable)

• Very firm (soil barley crushable between thumb and forefinger)

• Extremely firm (soil can not be crushed between thumb and fore
finger)
 Dry soils
• Rigidity, brittleness, maximum resistance to pressure, tendency to
crush to a powder and inability of a crushed material to cohere (join
together) again when pressed together, characterize Consistency of
soils in dry soils.

• Loose (non coherent)

• Soft (soil mass is very weakly coherent, breaks easily to powder)

• Slightly hard (easily broken between thumb and forefinger)

• Hard (Moderately resistant to pressure, can be broken in the hands

without difficulty but is barely breakable between thumb and
forefinger)

• Very hard (can be broken in the hands only with difficulty)

• Extremely hard (can not be broken in the hands)

 Soil plasticity

• It is the capacity of the soil to be molded. It is one range of

consistence of soil.
• Plasticity is defined as the property which enables a clay /
soil to take-up water, to form a mass that can be deformed
in to any desirable shape and to maintain the shape after
the deformation pressure is removed.
• Plasticity results from plate like nature of clay particles and
the combined binding / lubricating effect of adsorbed water.
• Any soil can exhibit plasticity, if it contains more than 15%
clay.
 Plasticity Index

• Liquid limit : The moisture content (%) at which the soil when
rolled into threads of 3.2mm (1/8 in) in diameter, will crumble.
• Plastic limit: The lower limit of the plastic stage of soil
• Plasticity Index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and
plastic limit of a soil.
• Ip (Plasticity index) = WL(Liquid limit) - WP (Plastic limit)
 Porosity

• Porosity refers to the percentage of soil volume occupied by

pore space.

• Pore spaces (voids) in a soil constitute portion of soil volume

not occupied by solids, either mineral or organic.

• The pore spaces under field conditions are occupied at all

times by air and water.

• Pore spaces directly control the amount of water and air in the
soil and indirectly influence the plant growth and crop
production.
 Soil pores

• a. Macro pores b. Micro pores or capillary pores

• Macropores : Large sized pores ( >0.06mm) invariably exist in
between sand sized granules and allow air and water movement
readily.
• Micro or capillary pores: Smaller sized pores (<0.06mm) in
which movement of air and water are restricted to some extent.
These pores are very important for crop growth. Generally clays
and clayey soils have a greater number of capillary pores.
• The existence of approximately equal number of macro and micro
pores would facilitate better aeration, permeability, drainage and
water retention.
 Density of soil

• Density is the weight per unit volume of a substance.

• It is expressed as gram per cubic centimeter or pound per

cubic feet or mega gram per cubic meter (Mg m-3).

• Two density measurements like particle density and bulk

density are common for soils.
 Particle density/true density

It is the mass per unit volume of soil solids. Particle density is

essentially the same as the specific gravity of solid substances.
The chemical composition and crystal structure of a mineral
determines its particle density.
Particle density is not affected by pore space and therefore is not
related to particle size or to the arrangement of particles (Soil
structure).
Particle densities for most mineral soils vary between the narrow
limits of 2.60 to 2.75 g/cc. The particle density of soils with very
high organic matter content may vary from 0.9 to 1.3 g/cc. Particle
density of soils is almost a permanent character which is not
influenced by addition of organic matter, tillage or depth. 37
 Bulk density

• It is the mass per unit volume of dry soil (volume of solid and pore
spaces).
• The bulk density of a soil is always smaller than its particle density.
• Loose and porous soils have low bulk densities as compared to
compacted soils.
• Bulk density is of importance than particle density in understanding
physical behavior of soils.
• Generally in normal soils bulk density ranges from 1.0 to 1.60 g/cc.
Finer the texture of the soil, lesser is the bulk density.
• Sand dominated soils 1.7 g/cc
• Organic peat soils 0.5 g/cc
• Compacted sub soils 2.0 g/cc
 Factors affecting bulk density
• More is the pore space, per unit volume of soil, less is the bulk
density.

• Higher is the compactness; more will be the bulk density.

• Higher is the depth of soil, more will be the bulk density.

• Finer is the texture of the soil, lesser is the bulk density.

• High organic matter contents, lead to reduced bulk density.

• Crumb soil structure shows low bulk density than that of platy
structure.

• Tillage temporarily reduces the bulk density.

• Cropping increases the bulk density of top soils.

 Calculation of porosity

• % solid space = Bulk density / particle density x 100

• % pore space + % solid space = 100
• % pore space = 100 - % solid space
= 100 – (B.D/P.D) x 100
= 100 [1-BD/PD]
Soil profile
Structure, and properties;
Determination of soil properties;
Fertility of the soil

2
 Soil Fertility

• Soil Fertility is the ability of the soil to provide essential plant

nutrients and water to the plants in adequate amount for
proper plant growth and reproduction

3
The capacity of soil to supply sufficient quantities and proportions of
essential chemical elements (nutrients) and water required for optimal
growth of specified plants as governed by the soil’s chemical, physical
and biological attributes.

•Chemical elements for plant nutrition

•Adequate soil volume for plant root development
•Water and air for root development and growth
•Anchorage for the plant structure

4
 Factors Influencing the Fertility of the Soil

1. Soil pH - After testing the soil, the existing pH level of the soil is
determined. Along with that, the nutrients that are available that can be
used for planting crops should be found out.

2. Moisture content - The amount of moisture that resides in the soil can
also influence soil fertility. Actual nutrients can be found in the soil solution
and not the solid matrix. Therefore, it's more desirable to use soil with
higher moisture content to increase and ensure its fertility.

5
3. Soil Organic Matter (SOM) - The fertility of the soil can be
increased by determining the presence of certain organic materials
that contain nutrients in them.
-Contains essential plant nutrients
-Improves the soil’s Cation Exchange Capacity
-Improves the soil’s water-holding capacity (SOM can hold up to
five times its own weight in water!)
-Improves water infiltration
-Buffers soil pH
-Binds with toxic elements in the soil
-Improves soil structure by stimulating activity of soil flora and
fauna
-Regulates the rates and amounts of nutrients released for
plant uptake

 SOM is a key issue in soil fertility management!

6
 Factors Influencing the Fertility of the Soil

4. Clay content - Through the soil's clay content, the cation

exchange capacity (CEC) is determined. There are more nutrients
present in soil with a higher CEC. Low CEC indicates the possibility
of easily losing nutrients by leaching.

Cations: positively charged ions (e.g. K+, NH4+)

Cation exchange capacity (CEC): the maximum quantity
of total cations that a soil is capable of holding.

5. Bulk density - Soil fertility also depends on its bulk density. As a

rule of thumb, the soil to be used should not be compacted. Or else,
it can easily obstruct root penetration. If this happens, it's going to
be difficult for the roots to reach the nutrients it needs.

7
 Soil fertility management practices
Correcting nutrient deficiencies
• Nutrient deficiencies prevent a good harvest
• Nutrient deficiencies can be expressed during plant
growth
• Use mineral (fertilizer) or organic (manure, crop
residues) to supply nutrients
• Use special fertilizer blends containing
micronutrients or manure in case of micronutrient
deficiencies

Healthy

P-deficient
Diseased

K-deficient
N-deficient

8
 Soil fertility management practices
Soil acidity correction

• Acidity is caused by
 inherent soil properties
 acidity inducing management (e.g. long-term use of ammonium
based fertilizer)

• Acid soils have high exchangeable Al (Al toxicity)

Solution: Addition of Lime

• Increases pH
• Prevents Al and Mn toxicity in acidic soils (pH <5.5)
• Supplies Ca
• Increases P and Mo availability
• Can increase microbiological activity

• Apply lime to reduce exchangeable Al to +/- 15%

9
 Soil fertility management practices
Breaking hardpans

• Compaction  sub-surface soil barrier to root growth

• Break hardpans by ploughing or chisel ploughing to 30
cm depth

Porous soil
allows good root Surface crust
development

Sub-
surface
barrier to
roots

10
 Soil fertility management practices
Water harvesting

• Capture more rainfall in areas that are prone to drought

 Harvesting additional water by making pits
 Promoting infiltration by coversing the soil surface with mulch

11
 Soil fertility management practices

Erosion control

• Prone to erosion: fields on steep slopes, or on gentle

slopes with course-textured top soil
• Measures: live barriers (e.g. grass strips), teracces,
surface mulch

12
 Soil fertility management practices
Land preparation and Planting date
• Good seedbed preparation improves germination and
reduces the chance for diseases
• A delay in planting date often affects yield negatively
• Planting time is important especially when the growing
season is short

13
 Soil fertility management practices
Spacing
• Crops compete for nutrients, water and light
• Use a correct planting density, adjusted to crop type and
the environment. Consider the distance between rows,
between plants within rows and the number of plants per
planting hole.
Crop Optimal rainfall Poor rainfall
Density Between Within Density Between Within
rows rows rows rows
‘000 cm cm ‘000 cm Cm
Plants/ha Plants/ha
Beans 200 50 10 133 50 15
(common)
Maize 44 75 30 37 90 30
Soybean 444 45 5 333 60 5
14
 Soil fertility management practices
Planting practices, Weeding, Pest and disease management

• Use viable seed (at least 80% germination)

• Plant seeds at the correct depth and insert cuttings at correct angle
• Plant more seeds than required for optimal plant density.
• Weeds compete with crops for nutrients, water and light.
• Timely removal of weeds is essential
• Weed before top dressing crop with fertilizer
• Control pests and diseases at specific growth stages

Delayed weeding reduces

the crop response to
fertilizer
15
 Soil fertility management practices
Intercropping
Intercropping is the cultivation of two or more crops
simultaneously on the same field.
• Diversity and stability of fields.
• Reduction in chemical/fertilizer application.
• A complementary sharing of plant resources, such as Nitrogen from
N- fixing plants.
• Weed suppression, and a reduction in susceptibility to insects and
disease.

16