ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system brings

about the chemical co-ordination
by means of hormones. Chemical
co-ordination is where a message
is carried chemically by a
hormone, the message is carried
slower than nervous
co-ordination, the message is
carried by the blood, it acts for a
long time, acts over a wide area
and results in a long-term
reaction that is delayed and
prolonged.
 Nervous co-ordination Chemical co-ordination
Message carried as a nerve Message carried as a hormone
impulse
Impulse travels fast Hormone travels slower
Message carried along nerves Message carried in blood
Message acts for a short time Message acts for a long time
Targets a specific area Acts over a wide area
Cause an immediate reaction Causes a delayed, long-term
reaction

The result of nervous and chemical co-ordination is homeostasis, the

maintenance of the internal environment of the body (including
temperature, blood sugar levels and water levels).
TYPES OF GLANDS:

Exocrine glands are glands which attach to

ducts, which then release chemicals in that
specific area (eg. salivary glands, sweat
glands).

Endocrine glands are glands that produce

chemicals (hormones) which need to be
transported far from the gland. These
hormones are secreted directly into the
bloodstream to be transported. Hormones
are chemical messengers that are protein in
nature. They are secreted to cause a
response from specific organ/s (target
ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:

Endocrine glands are:

∙ Hypothalamus
∙ Pituitary gland
∙ Thyroid gland
∙ Adrenal glands
∙ Pancreas
∙ Ovaries
∙ Testes
 HYPOTHALAMUS:
The hypothalamus is in close proximity to the pituitary gland. The
hypothalamus actually controls the pituitary.

1. Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH) is 2. Oxytocin is a hormone released

produced by the hypothalamus but at the onset of childbirth. It
is stored in, and released from, the stimulates contractions in the
posterior lobe of the pituitary uterine walls.
gland. It controls water
reabsorption by the kidneys.
When there is too little water in the blood:

Permeability More Water in

More
Impulse of walls of water blood
ADH
Osmoreceptors sent to DCT and leaves increases,
stimulated released
pituitary collecting tubules urine
into
gland ducts by becomes
blood
increased osmosis concentrated
When there is too much water in the
blood:
Permeability Less Water in
Less
Impulse of walls of water blood
ADH
Osmoreceptors sent to DCT and leaves decreases,
stimulated released
pituitary collecting tubules urine
into
gland ducts by becomes
blood
reduced osmosis diluted
Hormonal control of osmoregulation
PITUITARY GLAND (HYPOPHYSIS):
The pituitary gland is attached to
the hypothalamus in the brain and
is actually stimulated by the
hypothalamus to produce and
secrete a variety of important
hormones. This gland is also
referred to as the master gland, as
it secretes hormones that control
other endocrine glands. There are
two lobes of the pituitary, the
posterior lobe (which stores ADH
and oxytocin) and the anterior
lobe, which produces and secretes
many hormones.
Growth hormone (GH) allows the growth and
development of the body, with emphasis on
the skeleton and muscles.
Problems:
• Over-secretion of the hormone during
childhood results in giantism, a condition
where a person becomes very large due to
very fast growth.
• Under-secretion of the hormone during
childhood causes dwarfism, resulting in
the person being very short due to slow
growth during childhood.
• During adulthood, over-secretion of GH
results in acromegaly, where bones in the
hands, feet and face become enlarged.
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is found in both males and
females. In females it controls the development of ova (eggs) in the
follicles of the ovary. In males it controls development of sperm.
Luteinising hormone (LH) is produced in females, where it has many
effects on the Graafian follicle (mature follicle in the ovary
containing a fully developed ovum). It causes the release of the egg
from the follicle during ovulation. It stimulates the Graafian follicle
to produce oestrogen. It also causes the Graafian follicle to become
the corpus luteum after ovulation.

Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) is produced in males (it

is the male equivalent of LH). It stimulates the testes to produce
testosterone.
• Thyroid stimulating hormone
(TSH) acts and the thyroid
gland and stimulates it to
produce the hormone
thyroxin.
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) controls secretion of
hormones by the adrenal
glands (on top of the kidneys).
• Prolactin is secreted during
the later stages of pregnancy.
It stimulates milk production
(lactation).
 THYROID GLAND:
This is a butterfly-shaped gland in the neck, just below the larynx.

The thyroid gland secretes thyroxin,

which regulates metabolism and growth
and functioning of the heart and
nervous system. If we need more
energy, the pituitary gland secretes TSH,
which travels to the thyroid gland and
stimulates the secretion of thyroxin.
Thyroxin will then increase the rate of
oxidation of glucose in the cells, to
produce energy.
Problems:
• Goitre – swollen thyroid gland due to low levels
of iodine.
• Hypothyroidism – low levels of thyroxin
produced, characterised by a very slow
metabolism, causing stunted growth and slow
mental development, as well as dry, thick skin
and eventually the tongue will swell. This
condition is called cretinism and results due to
hypothyroidism during childhood.
Hypothyroidism during adulthood will not affect
physical growth, but can cause memory loss and
mental slowness. It also causes weight gain and
dry skin. This condition is called myxoedema.
• Hyperthyroidism – high levels of thyroxin
produced, causing a fast metabolism and
hyperactivity, as well as exophthalmic goitres
(eyes stick out).
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK:
Negative feedback mechanisms
are very important with regard to
maintaining a constant internal
environment.

*If MORE energy is needed*:

- The pituitary gland is stimulated
- to secrete MORE TSH,
- which stimulates the thyroid gland
- to secrete MORE thyroxin,
- which SPEEDS UP metabolism
- to produce MORE energy/heat
 ADRENAL GLANDS:
The adrenal glands are situated on top of the kidneys. They are
divided into two layers, the adrenal medulla on the inside and the
adrenal cortex on the outside. The adrenal medulla secretes the
hormone adrenalin and the adrenal cortex secretes the hormone
aldosterone.
Aldosterone has two main
functions. It regulates the
amount of salt in the blood
(sodium levels) and it works with
ADH to bring about water
balance.
*If salt levels in the blood are low*:
- Receptor cells in the kidneys
- detect low salt levels.
- The adrenal gland is stimulated
- to secrete more aldosterone,
- increasing the reabsorption of
sodium ions
- from the renal tubules
- into surrounding blood vessels.
- Salt levels in the blood increase
- and return to normal
Problems:
If there is an over-secretion of aldosterone, too much salt, and therefore
water will be retained by tissues. This causes water retention and then
swellings (oedemas).
Adrenalin is the fight or
flight hormone and is
secreted in an emergency
situation to provide us with
a rush of energy. We need
more glucose, more oxygen
and more thyroxin to
increase metabolism, brain
functioning and strengthen
muscles.
*Effects of adrenalin*:
- Adrenaline increases heart rate,
- and more blood is pumped to the muscles.
- Rate and depth of breathing increases,
- and muscles are supplied with more oxygen.
- The pituitary secretes TSH,
- stimulating the thyroid gland to release thyroxin.
- There is an increased conversion of glycogen to glucose,
- due to the release of glucagon by the pancreas.
- The muscle cells get more glucose for energy,
- Allowing the person to respond faster and with more strength.
Adrenalin is also secreted when a person is under stress (eg. during a sporting
match or hard work). This allows people to perform more efficiently than they
would normally function. However, constant stress can result in heart failure,
due to constant adrenalin causing the heart to perform at a higher level than
usual, putting it under stress. Adrenalin is also used by paramedics if a
person’s heart has stopped. An epinephrine injection is pure adrenalin, and
can cause a heart to start beating again.
 PANCREAS:
The pancreas is an organ rather than a gland. It has an exocrine function (the
secretion of pancreatic juice into the small intestine) and an endocrine
function (the secretion of insulin and glucagon by the islets of Langerhans).
The islets of Langerhans are specialised groups of cells inside the pancreas.
They consist of both
alpha cells, which secrete
glucagon, and beta cells,
which secrete insulin.
These two hormones play
an important role in the
maintenance of blood
sugar levels (glucose
levels), and act as
antagonists to one
another (opposite
effects).
*Low blood sugar levels*:
- If blood glucose levels are below normal,
- the alpha cells in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas are stimulated to release glucagon
- and the liver converts glycogen to glucose,
- increasing blood glucose levels
- and returning them to normal

*High blood sugar levels*:

- If blood glucose levels are above normal,
- the beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas are stimulated to release insulin
- and the liver converts glucose to glycogen,
- decreasing blood glucose levels
- and returning them to normal
The normal blood glucose level in a healthy human is 80 – 100mg per 100ml
blood. A common disease among people at present is diabetes mellitus (sugar
diabetes), where there is hypo-secretion (too little) of insulin, causing blood
sugar levels to increase to dangerously high levels after meals. Diabetes usually
shows the following symptoms:
∙ Large quantities of dilute urine
∙ Tiredness
∙ Great thirst
∙ Kidney diseases
Type I diabetes occurs when there is a problem with the beta cells or the islets
and no insulin is produced. This is a condition that begins in childhood or as a
result of a virus or other external factor. It is not a very common condition.
Type II diabetes is very common and is caused mainly by obesity or an
unhealthy diet, therefore occurring at any time during your life. This happens
when you secrete insulin, but your body cells stop reacting to insulin. It can be
managed in the early stages by a healthy lifestyle.
TESTES:
The testes lie in the scrotum
outside the abdominal cavity.
Numerous, coiled seminiferous
tubules, occur inside each
testis. When the pituitary
gland secretes ICSH, special
interstitial cells (Leydig cells) in
the wall of the seminiferous
tubules secrete the hormone
testosterone. Testosterone is
responsible for the
development and functioning
of the male reproductive
system.
OVARY:
The ovaries are two almond-shaped organs, in the female reproductive system,
which produce eggs (ova) inside follicles. The follicles secrete oestrogen. After
ovulation (the release of an ovum) the Graafian follicle becomes the corpus
luteum. The corpus luteum secretes the hormone progesterone.
Oestrogen is a hormone that is released throughout the lifetime of a female.
It is produced in larger quantities by the Graafian follicle, which begins to
appear during puberty. It has two basic functions. Firstly, it is responsible
for the development of girls into sexually mature individuals (secondary
sexual characteristics). Secondly, it builds the endometrium lining in
preparation of implantation.
Progesterone is responsible for maintaining the endometrium lining during the
last half of the menstrual cycle and throughout pregnancy. A high level of
progesterone blocks the production of FSH by the pituitary gland (negative
feedback) so that no further eggs are produced during pregnancy.