HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

The need for a human nervous system is to bring about co-ordination and
hence homeostasis.
Co-ordination involves:
Sensing any changes that are taking place in the internal and external environment

Interpreting this information.

Adjusting the body in the response to the decision that has been made.
Interpreting this information.

Nerves (Nervous co-ordination) and hormones (chemical co-ordination) are

responsible for co-ordination and maintaining homeostasis.

Stimulus Receptor Brain Effectors response

BRAIN The brain is protected by
the cranium (skull) and 3
layers called meninges.
The brain is the enlarged
upper part of the spinal
cord. Its outer layer is
called grey matter made
up mostly of cell bodies
of neurons and the inner
section is called white
matter made up of axons
covered with a fatty
myelin sheath. There are
spaces called ventricles
inside the brain that are
filled with cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF).
Protective layers Cranium: thick layer of bone
Meninges:
1) Pia mater contains many blood
vessels responsible for supplying
the brain with glucose and
oxygen.
2) Arachnoid layer is filled with
CSF, which serves to cushion the
brain, acting as a shock-absorber.
It also provides a constant
pressure around the brain and
allows transport of nutrients and
wastes.
3) Dura mater is a tough
membrane designed solely for
 CEREBRUM
This is the largest part of the brain. It is made up of two parts, or hemispheres, that are
connected by a mass of white matter called the corpus callosum. Underneath the corpus
callosum lie the ventricles, which contain CSF. Grey matter is on the outside, white on the
inside.
∙ Occipital lobe – interprets
impulses involving sight.
∙ Parietal lobe – interprets skin
sensations.
∙ Temporal lobe – interprets
impulses involving smell,
hearing and taste.
∙ Frontal lobe - controls
voluntary muscular movement.
Responsible for higher thought
processes: memory,
personality, intelligence,
problem solving and speech.
 CEREBELLUM
The cerebellum lies below the cerebrum. Inside the cerebellum, the white matter branches
in the shape of a tree called the arbour vitae or the tree (arbour) of life (vitae), while the
grey matter is located on the outside, like the cerebrum.

Functions:
∙ Co-ordinates voluntary muscular
movement e.g. running so we can
perform complex movements in a
smooth, controlled way.
∙ Helps to regulate balance, posture
and therefore muscle tone.
 This forms the lowest part of the brain stem. The grey matter is
MEDULLA on the inside in an H-shape, with the white matter on the
OBLONGATA outside. It has central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The
structure of the medulla oblongata is similar to that of the spinal
cord. The medulla oblongata becomes the spinal cord once it
passes through the foramen magnum at the base of the skull.
Functions:
∙ Controls vital reflex functions, such as rate of breathing, blood
pressure and heart rate (reflex centre for involuntary actions).
∙ Controls other reflex functions such as coughing, sneezing,
blinking and hiccoughing.
∙ Nerve fibres cross over in the medulla oblongata (white and
grey matter swap places); the left side of the brain controls
the right side of the body and vice versa.
∙ Conducts impulses from spinal cord to higher parts of the
brain.
∙ Controls involuntary movements [Link] activities (swallowing,
peristalsis).
 HYPOTHALAMUS
Located just above the pituitary gland.
This is the part of the brain that
controls the autonomic nervous
system, allowing homeostasis to occur,
thus maintaining our internal
environment.

Functions:
∙ Controls blood pressure
∙ Controls body temperature
∙ Regulates sleep, appetite, thirst
∙ Controls the pituitary gland and
other glands
∙ Controls emotions and biological
rhythms and drives (aggression,
self-defence)
 SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord is a dorsal nerve cord
that extends from the medulla
oblongata to the lumber region of the
spine. It is also surrounded by the
meninges, which continue from the
brain. The arrangement of the
neurons is the same as the medulla
oblongata, with the grey matter on
the inside and the white matter on the
outside. It runs through the vertebral
canal of the vertebral column, and is
therefore protected by bone.
 CROSS SECTION THROUGH SPINAL CORD
31 pairs of spinal nerves are linked to the spinal cord. Each nerve is attached by mean of a
dorsal and ventral root. The dorsal root contains the sensory neuron, where impulses
travel towards the spinal cord, and the ventral root contains the motor neuron, where
impulses travel from the spinal cord.

The central canal, filled with

CSF, runs through the centre of
the grey matter of the spinal
cord, joining up to the
ventricles in the brain. The
dorsal root contains a ganglion,
which is simply a collection of
neuron cell bodies.
Function of the spinal cord:
∙ Provides a pathway for impulses between the brain and the peripheral organs of the body.
Impulses from receptors are conducted via sensory neurons to the spinal cord. From here
the impulses are conducted along ascending tracts (in white matter) to the brain.
Descending tracts carry impulses from the brain down the spinal cord, then via motor
neurons to the effectors organs.
∙ Spinal cord makes reflex actions possible. These reflexes function independently of the
brain. Their function is to prevent injury to the body.
 12 pairs of cranial nerves
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 31 pairs of spinal nerves
The peripheral nervous system is made
up of nervous tissue found outside the
CNS. The sensory nerves carry
information to the CNS from internal or
external receptors (eg. pain receptors,
eyes, ears etc.) The motor nerves carry
information from the CNS to effectors,
which are muscles and glands.
The messages sent along nerve
pathways are called impulses, which
jump along the nerve cells at a rapid
pace, bringing about a lightning-fast
response to a particular stimulus.
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Controls involuntary actions of the body,
including breathing rate, dilates blood
vessels, heartbeat. It can either speed up or
slow down all these processes.
Each organ receives a double set of
autonomic nerves – one from the
sympathetic and the other from the
parasympathetic section of the autonomic
nervous system. E.g. Sympathetic nerve to
heart – speeds up its activity while the
parasympathetic nerve slows it down.
The sympathetic and parasympathetic NS
work antagonistically to each other.
PARASYMPATHETIC NS SYMPATHETIC NS
Returns body to normal after Prepares the body for fight or flight
immediate response response
*AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:*
- A collection of motor neurons located in the head, thorax, neck,
abdomen and pelvis
- Every organ and gland are controlled by two sets of nerves,
- that act antagonistically,
- to control involuntary events / to bring about homeostasis.
- Sympathetic nerves bring about a response and prepare the body
for fight or flight.
- Parasympathetic nerves inhibit a response and bring about a
relaxed state.
 SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
∙ Controls voluntary actions
∙ Includes actions involving prolonged thought as well as reflex actions (rapid
responses to prevent harm to the body)
Connects with
Receives impulses
dendrites of next
neuron at synapse

A motor neuron:
Impulses from
CNS to effector

Transmits impulses
Increase speed of impulses
away from cell body
A sensory neuron:
Impulses from receptor to CNS

A connector neuron:
Connects sensory and motor neuron in
the CNS
Sensory neuron Motor neuron
Unipolar (one dendrite) Multipolar (many dendrites)
Cell body located in middle of cell Cell body located at end of cell
Transmits impulses from receptor Transmits impulses from CNS to
to CNS effector
 When an impulse travels
SYNAPSE along a neuron, it moves from
the dendrites, to the cell
body, to the axon, eventually
reaching the synaptic end
knobs. Inside the end knobs
are vesicles containing
chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters (eg.
dopamine).

Neurotransmitters are
released from the end of the
Synapses allow the
neuron and diffuse across the
movement of
synaptic cleft, attaching to
impulses in one
the dendrites of the next
direction only.
neuron, to continue the
transmission of the impulse.
 REFLEXES

REFLEX ARC: The path

taken by an electrical
impulse in a response
to a stimulus.
REFLEX ACTION: An
involuntary rapid
response to a stimulus.
*REFLEX ARC:*
- The receptor receives a stimulus (which is….)
- and converts it into an impulse.
- The sensory neuron carries the impulse from the receptor to the
connector neuron in the CNS.
- The interneuron transmits the impulse to the motor neuron.
- The impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another across a
synapse.
- The motor neuron carries the impulse to the effector (which
is….),
- to perform a response (which is….)
Alzheimer’s disease:
Alzheimer’s disease is an irreversible,
progressive brain disease that slowly
destroys memory and thinking skills, and
eventually even the ability to carry out the
simplest tasks. In most people with
Alzheimer’s, symptoms first appear after age
60.

• Caused by genetics, lifestyle and

environment
• Symptoms: decline in memory,
thinking, behaviour and
communication skills
• Eventually results in dementia
Very Early Signs
Memory problems are one of the first signs e.g. problems can include getting lost, trouble
handling money and paying bills, repeating questions, taking longer to complete normal daily
tasks, poor judgment, and small mood and personality changes.

Moderate
Confusion increases, and people begin to have problems recognizing family and friends. They
may be unable to learn new things

Severe
Plaques and tangles have spread throughout the brain and brain tissue has shrunk
significantly. People with severe Alzheimer’s cannot communicate and are completely
dependent on others for their care.
Multiple sclerosis (MS):
An auto-immune disease (immune system attacks the body), destroying the
myelin sheath and slowing down nerve impulses.

Symptoms: loss of muscle control and muscle fatigue, speech and vision
problems, muscle spasms
Dagga Causes dopamine to be continually Dagga use can lead to loss of
released into the synapses. It affects memory, emotional problems, a
the cerebrum and cerebellum. The decrease in sex drive and sterility. It
person feels calm and relaxed and can also cause lung cancer.
there is a loss of short-term Weakens short term memory and
memory. Movement slows down. problem solving potential and
causes paranoia, anxiety and
confusion.
Heroin Causes dopamine to flood into the Heroin changes the chemical balance of
synapses in the parts of the CNS the brain so the addict’s main aim in
concerned with stress response and life is to find and use drugs. Unable to
transmitting pain signals. The user differentiate reality from fantasy.
immediately feels sedated and has a Difficulty concentrating. Death from an
feeling of well-being. Heroin also overdose is usually caused by
inhibits the activity of the medulla respiratory failure.
oblongata, which controls coughing and
breathing.
Ecstasy Stimulates serotonin release which Ecstasy increases the risk of mental
over-stimulates the brain neurons. The health problems like depression.
ecstasy user feels pleasure, confidence Difficulty differentiating reality and
and has increased energy. fantasy. Concentration problems.
People die when using ecstasy because
they overheat, dehydrate or drink too
much water. Ecstasy damages the
nerve endings and when they heal, they
reconnect abnormally. This changes the
brain permanently, negatively affecting
emotions, memory and learning.
Tik Tik causes excess dopamine, important Using tik eventually causes anxiety,
to regulating behaviour, motor activity, fear, violence and self-destructive
motivation, learning & mood, to be to behaviour, memory loss, mood swings,
be secreted into the synapses and the delusion, sweat/ cold chills. Overdoses
neurons become over-stimulated. Tik cause an increased heart rate, blood
is very addictive because it works on pressure and body temperature.
the brain’s reward pathway. The user
feels intense pleasure and exhilaration.