Chapter 4: Moving Charges and Magnetism

This chapter delves into the fundamental principles of magnetostatics, which is

the study of magnetic fields produced by steady currents (moving charges) and
the forces these fields exert. It forms the cornerstone of electromagnetism,
bridging the previously separate phenomena of electricity and magnetism.

1. Introduction: The Birth of Electromagnetism

 Historical Pivot: For over 2000 years, electricity and magnetism were
considered separate phenomena. The pivotal moment came in 1820 when Hans
Christian Oersted observed during a lecture that an electric current in a wire
caused a deflection in a nearby magnetic compass needle.

 Oersted's Findings:

1. The alignment of the compass needle was tangential to an imaginary

circle with the wire at its center.

2. Reversing the current reversed the direction of the needle's deflection.

3. The effect increased with the magnitude of the current and decreased with
distance from the wire.

4. Iron filings sprinkled around the wire arranged themselves in concentric

circles, visually mapping the magnetic field.

 Fundamental Conclusion: Moving charges or electric currents produce a

magnetic field in the surrounding space. This discovery unified electricity and
magnetism into the single field of electromagnetism, later mathematically
formalized by James Clerk Maxwell.

 Pictorial Convention:

o A current or magnetic field emerging out of the plane of the paper is

represented by a dot (⊙), like the tip of an arrow coming towards you.

o A current or magnetic field going into the plane of the paper is represented by
a cross (⊗), like the feathered tail of an arrow moving away from you
 2. Magnetic Force and the Lorentz Force Law

 Concept of Field: Just as a static charge produces an electric field E, a moving

charge (current) produces a magnetic field B. Both are vector fields that obey
the principle of superposition.

 The Lorentz Force Law: The total force on a charge q moving with
velocity v in the presence of both an electric field E and a magnetic field B is
given by:
F = q [E + (v × B)]
This force is the sum of the electric force and the magnetic force.

 In-Depth Analysis of the Magnetic Force (F_magnetic = q (v × B)):

1. Dependence: It depends on the charge (q), its velocity (v), and the magnetic
field (B). The force on a negative charge is opposite to that on a positive charge.

2. The Vector Cross Product: This is the crucial element. The force is
perpendicular to the plane formed by the velocity and magnetic field vectors. Its
direction is given by the Right-Hand Rule: if you point your fingers in the
direction of v and curl them towards B, your outstretched thumb gives the
direction of v × B (and thus the force direction for a positive charge).

work on the particle (W = F ⋅ d = 0). It cannot change the kinetic energy or

3. Work Done: Since the force is always perpendicular to the velocity, it does no

speed of the particle; it can only change its direction of motion.

4. Special Cases:

 If v is parallel or antiparallel to B, the force is zero.

 The force is maximum when v is perpendicular to B.

 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor: By considering the drift velocity of

charge carriers, the magnetic force on a straight conductor of length l, carrying a
current I in a uniform field B is derived as:
F = I (l × B)
Here, l is a vector whose magnitude is the length of the conductor and direction
is that of the current.

3. Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field

The path a charged particle takes depends critically on the angle between its
velocity vector and the magnetic field vector.
 Case 1: Velocity Perpendicular to the Magnetic Field (v ⟂ B)
o The magnetic force, qvB, provides the necessary centripetal force for circular
motion.
o Equating the two forces: m v² / r = q v B
o Radius of the Circular Path: r = m v / (q B)
 Heavier particles, or those with higher momentum (mv), describe larger circles.
 Stronger magnetic fields curve the path more tightly, resulting in a smaller
radius.
o Angular Frequency and Cyclotron Frequency:
 v = ω r => ω = q B / m
 The frequency of revolution is ν = ω / 2π = q B / (2 π m)
o Key Insight: The cyclotron frequency is independent of the speed and the
radius of the particle. This is the operating principle of a cyclotron particle
accelerator, where an alternating electric field is synchronized with this constant
frequency to accelerate charged particles.

 Case 2: Velocity at an Arbitrary Angle to the Magnetic Field

o The velocity is resolved into two components: v∥ (parallel to B)
and v⟂ (perpendicular to B).
o The component v∥ remains unchanged because the force q(v∥ × B) = 0.
o The component v⟂ results in uniform circular motion in a plane perpendicular
to B.
o The resultant motion is a helix. The particle moves in a circle while
simultaneously translating along the field direction.
o Radius of the helix: r = m v⟂ / (q B)
o Pitch of the helix: The distance traveled along B in one time period T.d
 p = v∥ * T = v∥ * (2 π m / q B)
 4. Magnetic Field due to a Current Element: The Biot-Savart Law

This is the fundamental law for calculating the magnetic field generated by a
steady current.

 Statement: The magnetic field dB at a point P due to an infinitesimal current

element I dl is:
dB = (μ₀ / 4π) * [ I (dl × r) / r³ ]
where:
o μ₀ is the permeability of free space (4π × 10⁻⁷ T m A⁻¹).
o r is the displacement vector from the element to the point P.
o The direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r, given by
the right-hand rule for the cross product.
 Magnitude: |dB| = (μ₀ / 4π) * (I dl sinθ / r²)
where θ is the angle between dl and r.

 Comparison with Coulomb's Law:

o Similarities: Both are inverse-square laws and obey the superposition principle.
o Differences:
1. Source: Electrostatic field has a scalar source (charge). Magnetic field has a
vector source (I dl).
2. Direction: E is radial. B is perpendicular to the plane of dl and r.
3. Angle Dependence: E has no angle dependence. B depends on sinθ.

5. Magnetic Field due to Specific Current Configurations

 A. Straight Long Current-Carrying Conductor:

o Field at a distance r: B = (μ₀ I) / (2 π r)

o Direction: Given by the Right-Hand Thumb Rule: Grasp the wire with your
right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current. The curled
fingers show the direction of the magnetic field lines (concentric circles).

 B. Circular Current Loop:

o Field on the Axis: At a distance x from the center along the axis:
B = (μ₀ I R²) / [2(x² + R²)^(3/2)]
where R is the radius of the loop.

o Field at the Centre (x = 0): B_centre = (μ₀ I) / (2 R)

o Direction: Given by the Right-Hand Curl Rule: Curl the fingers of your right
hand along the direction of the current in the loop. The outstretched thumb gives
the direction of the magnetic field at the center (along the axis).
 C. Solenoid (Long, Tightly-Wound Coil):
o Field Inside: For an ideal, long solenoid, the field inside is strong, uniform,
and parallel to the axis. The field outside is nearly zero.
o Formula: B = μ₀ n I
where n is the number of turns per unit length.
o Derivation using Ampere's Law: An Amperian rectangular loop is used, and
the only significant contribution to the line integral comes from the side inside
the solenoid.

o A current or magnetic field emerging out of the plane of the paper is

represented by a dot (⊙), like the tip of an arrow coming towards you.

o A current or magnetic field going into the plane of the paper is represented by
a cross (⊗), like the feathered tail of an arrow moving away from you.

6. Ampere’s Circuital Law

Ampere's Circuital Law provides an elegant method for calculating magnetic

fields when there is high symmetry, serving as the magnetic equivalent of
Gauss's Law in electrostatics.

Fundamental Principle:
The line integral of the magnetic field B around any closed path equals μ₀ times
the net current enclosed by the path:

∮ B ⋅ dl = μ₀I_enc

Key Applications:
 Long Straight Conductor: For a wire carrying current I, using a circular

B × 2πr = μ₀I ⇒ B = μ₀I/(2πr)

Amperian loop of radius r gives:

 Long Solenoid: The field inside is strong and uniform, while outside it's
negligible:
B = μ₀nI where n is turns per unit length

 Thick Conductor: For a wire of radius R carrying uniform current:

o Outside (r > R): B = μ₀I/(2πr)

o Inside (r < R): B = (μ₀Ir)/(2πR²) - increases linearly with r

Right-Hand Rule: Curl fingers along integration path; thumb gives positive
current direction.

7. Force Between Parallel Currents & the Ampere

Two parallel current-carrying conductors exert magnetic forces on each other

due to their interacting magnetic fields.

Force Calculation:

 Conductor 'a' produces field Bₐ = μ₀Iₐ/(2πd) at conductor 'b'

 Force on length L of conductor 'b': F_{ba} = I_bL × Bₐ

 Force per unit length: f = (μ₀IₐI_b)/(2πd)

Direction Rule:

 Parallel currents ATTRACT

 Antiparallel currents REPEL

This is opposite to electrostatic charges where like charges repel.

Definition of the Ampere:

The ampere is defined as that constant current which, maintained in two straight
parallel conductors 1 meter apart in vacuum, produces a force of 2 × 10⁻⁷ N per
meter length between them.

8. Torque on a Current Loop and Magnetic Moment

 A current loop in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque, causing it to
rotate.

 Magnetic Moment (m): A vector that characterizes the magnetic strength and
orientation of a current loop.
o Magnitude: m = I * A (for a single loop), m = N I A (for a coil of N turns).
o Direction: Given by the right-hand rule: curl fingers in the direction of current,
thumb points in the direction of m (and the area vector A).
 Torque (τ): The torque on a loop with magnetic moment m in a uniform
field B is:
τ=m×B
o Magnitude: τ = m B sinθ, where θ is the angle between m and B.
o The torque is zero when m is parallel (θ=0, stable equilibrium) or antiparallel
(θ=180°, unstable equilibrium) to B. It is maximum when m is perpendicular
to B.

9. Moving Coil Galvanometer (MCG)

The moving coil galvanometer is a precision instrument that converts electrical

current into mechanical motion, serving as the foundation for most analog
current and voltage measuring devices.

Construction Details:

 A rectangular coil containing many turns (N) of fine copper wire wound on a
lightweight aluminum frame

 The coil is suspended between the poles of a permanent U-shaped magnet by a

thin phosphor-bronze strip

 A soft iron cylinder is placed at the core, serving two critical purposes:
1. Making the magnetic field radial (always parallel to the plane of the coil)

2. Concentrating and strengthening the magnetic field

 A hair spring provides restoring torque and serves as one current lead

 A pointer attached to the coil indicates deflection on a calibrated scale

Working Principle - Mathematical Derivation:

In the radial magnetic field, the angle between the magnetic moment and field
is always 90°, so sinθ = 1:

 Deflecting Torque: τ_def = NIAB

(where A is coil area, B is magnetic field strength)
 Restoring Torque: τ_rest = kφ
(where k is torsional constant of spring, φ is angular deflection)

At equilibrium, deflecting torque equals restoring torque:

NIAB = kφ

Therefore, the deflection is:

φ = (NAB/k) × I

This shows that deflection φ is directly proportional to current I, making the

scale linear.

Key Performance Parameters:

Current Sensitivity (S_I):
 Definition: Deflection per unit current
 S_I = φ/I = NAB/k
 To increase sensitivity: Increase N, A, B or decrease k
 Voltage Sensitivity (S_V):

 Definition: Deflection per unit voltage

 S_V = φ/V = NAB/(kR)
 Where R is total circuit resistance

Important Note: Increasing N increases current sensitivity but also increases

coil resistance R, leaving voltage sensitivity unchanged.

Conversions for Practical Use:

Ammeter Conversion:

 Problem: Galvanometer has high resistance and can only handle microamperes
 Solution: Connect a low resistance shunt (r_s) in parallel
 Shunt value calculation: r_s = (I_g × R_g)/(I - I_g)
 Most current bypasses through shunt, protecting the delicate coil
text

Voltmeter Conversion:

 Problem: Galvanometer has low resistance and would draw too much current
 Solution: Connect a high resistance R in series
 Series resistance calculation: R = V/I_g - R_g
 Limits current through galvanometer when measuring voltage
text
 Advantages of MCG:

 Linear scale due to radial magnetic field

 High sensitivity
 Not affected by external magnetic fields
 Low power consumption

10. Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole

A current-carrying loop produces a magnetic field that, at large distances, is

identical to that of a magnetic dipole (bar magnet). This analogy forms the basis
for understanding magnetic materials and their behavior.

Field Calculation on the Axis:

For a circular loop of radius R carrying current I, the magnetic field at point P
on the axis at distance x from center is:

B = (μ₀IR²)/[2(x² + R²)^{3/2}]
For points far away (x >> R), this simplifies to:
B = (μ₀IR²)/(2x³)
Since the area A = πR² and magnetic moment m = IA, we can write:
B = (μ₀/4π) × (2m/x³)
Complete Dipole Field Pattern:

The dipole field has two characteristic patterns:

On the Axis (End-on Position):

B_axis = (μ₀/4π) × (2m/x³)
On the Equatorial Line (Broadside-on):
B_equatorial = (μ₀/4π) × (m/x³)

Mathematical Analogy with Electric Dipole:

The correspondence is exact:
Electric Dipole Magnetic Dipole

p (dipole moment) m (magnetic moment)

1/4πε₀ μ₀/4π

E = (1/4πε₀) × (2p/x³) B = (μ₀/4π) × (2m/x³)

Torque Behavior Similarity:

Both dipoles experience similar torque in uniform fields:

Electric Dipole: τ = p × E
Magnetic Dipole: τ = m × B

Both align with their field: electric dipole with p parallel to E, magnetic dipole
with m parallel to B.
Fundamental Physical Difference:

Despite mathematical similarities, there's a crucial physical difference:

Electric Dipole:

 Consists of two separable monopoles (+ and - charges)

 Field lines begin at positive charge, end at negative charge
 Monopoles can exist independently

Magnetic Dipole:

 The current loop itself is the elementary entity

 Field lines form continuous closed loops
 No magnetic monopoles have been discovered
 Even if you break a magnet, you get smaller dipoles, not isolated poles

Ampere's Hypothesis: André-Marie Ampère suggested that all magnetic

phenomena originate from circulating currents. This is remarkably prescient -
we now know that:

 Macroscopic magnetism comes from current loops in circuits

 Atomic magnetism comes from electron orbits
 Intrinsic magnetism comes from electron spin (also a form of circulating
current)

Practical Implications:

1. Any planar current loop, regardless of shape, behaves as a magnetic

dipole at large distances
2. This explains why irregular current-carrying loops tend to become
circular - to maximize magnetic moment for given perimeter
3. The dipole model is valid for atomic systems, planetary magnetism, and
electromagnets

The current loop magnetic dipole model successfully unifies phenomena from
atomic scales (electron orbits) to planetary scales (Earth's magnetic field).

CONCLUSION

This chapter establishes the core principles linking electric currents to magnetic
phenomena. We have seen that moving charges generate magnetic fields,
described mathematically by the Lorentz Force Law and the Biot-Savart Law.
These foundations allow us to calculate magnetic fields efficiently
using Ampere's Circuital Law for symmetric setups and to understand forces
between current-carrying conductors.

The concept of a current loop as a magnetic dipole provides a powerful model

that explains both macroscopic magnetic behavior and the operation of essential
devices like the moving coil galvanometer. These principles are not merely
theoretical; they enable crucial technologies, from precision measurement
instruments to particle accelerators like the cyclotron.

Ultimately, this exploration reveals the deep unification of electricity and

magnetism. The laws governing these intertwined forces form the bedrock of
classical electromagnetism and underpin much of modern physics and electrical
engineering.
 DIMAPUR:NAGALAND
Physics Assigncent
Topic: Electromagnetiv Waves
Submitted by: Roll No Class
1. Khupgougin Hangshing 15 12C
2. Kitono Chophy 28 12 C

Submitted to: Sir Rehman

Submitted on: ____________

Internal signature External

signature
 Table of Contents: Moving Charges and Magnetis
1. Introduction: The Birth of Electromagnetism
 1.1 Historical Context: Oersted's Experiment
 1.2 Fundamental Conclusion: Currents Produce Magnetic Fields
 1.3 Pictorial Conventions: Dot and Cross Notation
2. Magnetic Force and the Lorentz Force Law
 2.1 The Concept of a Magnetic Field
 2.2 The Lorentz Force Equation
 2.3 Properties of the Magnetic Force
 2.4 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
3. Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
 3.1 Case 1: Circular Motion (Velocity Perpendicular to Field)
 3.2 Case 2: Helical Motion (Velocity at an Angle to Field)
 3.3 The Cyclotron Frequency and its Applications
4. Magnetic Field due to a Current Element: The Biot-Savart
Law
 4.1 Statement and Formula of the Biot-Savart Law
 4.2 Directionality and the Right-Hand Rule
 4.3 Comparison with Coulomb's Law
5. Magnetic Field due to Specific Current Configurations
 5.1 Straight, Long Current-Carrying Conductor
 5.2 Circular Current Loop
 5.3 The Long Solenoid
6. Ampere’s Circuital Law
 6.1 Fundamental Statement and Application
 6.2 The Amperian Loop and Enclosed Current
 6.3 Applications: Long Wire, Solenoid, and Thick Conductor
7. Force Between Two Parallel Currents & the Ampere
 7.1 Force Calculation and Direction Rule
 7.2 The SI Definition of the Ampere
8. Torque on a Current Loop & Magnetic Moment
 8.1 Definition of Magnetic Moment
 8.2 Torque in a Uniform Magnetic Field
 8.3 Equilibrium States
9. The Moving Coil Galvanometer (MCG)
 9.1 Construction and Working Principle
 9.2 Theory: Deflection and Sensitivity
 9.3 Conversions: Ammeter and Voltmeter
10. Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole
 10.1 Magnetic Field of a Dipole

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all the individuals who
have supported and guided me throughout the completion of this
physics project.

First and foremost, I extend my deepest appreciation to my Physics

teacher, Sir Rehman. His profound knowledge and passion for the
subject were a constant source of inspiration. His invaluable guidance,
patience in answering my countless questions, and insightful feedback
on the experimental design were instrumental in shaping this project.
Without his mentorship, this work would not have reached its
potential.

My heartfelt thanks go to my friends and classmate for their

unwavering support, stimulating discussions, and encouragement
during the more challenging phases of this work.

Most importantly, I owe a special debt of gratitude to my family my

parents and my siblings for their unconditional love, constant
encouragement, and for creating an environment that allowed me to
focus on my studies. Their belief in me has always been my driving
force

Yours faithfully