Applied Chemistry for Smart Systems (1BCHES102/202)

MODULE-1
Memory Devices: Introduction, organic semiconductors; types of organic semiconductors used in
memory devices, p-type semiconductor-pentacene and n-type semiconductor perfluoropentacene.
Differences between organic and inorganic memory devices. Construction, working and
advantages of pentacene semiconductor chip.
Resistive RAM (ReRAM) Materials: Introduction, synthesis of TiO₂-RAM nanomaterial by sol-
gel method, properties and applications.
Display Systems: Introduction, liquid crystals (LCs)-classification, properties and its applications.
Construction, working principle and applications of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), Organic Light
Emitting Diodes (OLEDs), Active-Matrix Organic Light Emitting Diodes (AMOLEDs) and
Quantum Light Emitting Diodes (QLEDs).
…………………………………………………………………………………………..

Memory Devices

Introduction:

 Memory devices are electronic components used to store data and instructions
temporarily or permanently.

 They are essential components in modern electronic devices such as computers,

smartphones, and digital cameras.

 Memory devices can be classified into volatile and non-volatile memory, with
volatile memory losing its contents when power is removed and non-volatile
memory retaining its contents.

 Memory devices are organized into a hierarchy based on speed, capacity, and cost,
with the CPU cache being the fastest and most expensive type of memory.

 Memory technologies are constantly evolving, with new types of memory devices
being developed for faster, more energy-efficient, and more reliable memory.

Organic semiconductors: Organic semiconductors are carbon-based materials with

conjugated π-bond systems that enable charge transport through delocalized electrons. When
suitably doped or optically/electrically excited, they exhibit semiconducting behavior. Their key
advantages include mechanical flexibility, lightweight nature, low-cost processing, and tunable
electronic properties, making them highly valuable in flexible electronics, sensors, and organic
memory devices.

Types of Organic Semiconductors in Memory Devices:

1. Small-molecule semiconductors (e.g., pentacene, rubrene) – These are low-molecular-weight

compounds that can be easily purified and deposited by evaporation.

Examples:
 Pentacene – widely used due to high hole mobility; used in organic field-effect transistor
(OFET)-based memory.
 Rubrene – exhibits high mobility and good crystallinity.
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 Fullerenes (C₆₀, PCBM) – used as electron-transport materials in charge-trapping memories.
 Perylene diimides (PDI) – electron-transport materials, often used in n-type memory devices.

Applications: Charge-trap memory, floating-gate memory.

2. Polymeric semiconductors (e.g., polythiophenes, polyfluorenes)- These are long-chain organic

materials with alternating single and double bonds, providing delocalized π-electrons.

Examples:
 Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) – most common p-type polymer for OFETs and memory
devices.
 Poly(phenylene vinylene) (PPV) – used in bistable resistive switching devices.
 Polyaniline (PANI) and Polypyrrole (PPy) – used in redox-based memory due to their
reversible oxidation states.
 Polyfluorene derivatives – for charge storage and electroluminescent memory.

Applications: Resistive memory, redox memory, transistor-based memory.

3. Organic-inorganic hybrids (e.g., perovskite-organic blends) -These combine organic

semiconductors with nanoparticles or quantum dots to enhance performance.

Examples:
 P3HT–Au nanoparticle composites – used in charge-trapping memory.
 Polymer–TiO₂ nanocomposites – for resistive switching.
 Perovskite–polymer blends – for hybrid memory devices.

Applications: Non-volatile memory (NVM), resistive random-access memory (RRAM).

Advantages of Organic Semiconductors in Memory Devices: Cost-effective, mechanically

flexible, and compatible with next-gen applications such as flexible displays and wearable
electronics.

p-type semiconductor - Pentacene

p-type semiconductors: Materials where conduction is mainly due to holes (positive charge carriers)
created by electron deficiency; usually formed by doping. An Organic molecule with π conjugated
system and possess holes as major charge carrier is called p-type semiconductor.
Example: Pentacene.

Pentacene is an organic semiconductor made up of five linearly fused benzene rings (a polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbon). It is a p-type semiconductor, which means that it has a deficiency of
electrons and can accept them from other materials.

To show that Pentacene is a p-Type semiconductor Consider OTFT(Optical Thin Film Transistor) as
shown above. Source and drain was made of gold and semiconductor was Pentacene.
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When a positive voltage was applied between gate and source, it was found no flow of electrons to
drain due to higher energy gap between the Fermi level of gold (source) and LUMO of Pentacene.
On the other hand, when a negative voltage is applied between the drain and source, holes are
induced at source. This permits a channel of charges (holes) to drain through semiconductor and
insulator interface when a secondary voltage is applied. Therefore, it is called as P-type
semiconductor

Properties of p-type pentacene semiconductor

[Link] Transport – Hole-dominated conduction (p-type) via hopping between HOMO levels;
mobility up to ~1 cm²/V·s in thin films.
[Link] Levels – HOMO ≈ −5.0 eV, LUMO ≈ −3.0 eV, band gap ≈ 2.2 eV → favourable for hole
injection.
[Link] Property -Planar conjugated molecule with strong π–π stacking, enabling efficient
hole transport.
[Link] Property-Strong absorption in the visible range (around 660 nm); excitons are Frenkel-
type.
[Link] – Sensitive to oxygen, moisture, and light, requiring encapsulation for device
applications.

Applications of Pentacene
1. OFETs (Organic Field-Effect Transistor)
2. Charge transfer OMD
3. Flexible and wearable electronics
4. Organic semiconducting chip

n-type semiconductor – Perfluoropentacene

n-type semiconductors: Materials where conduction is mainly due to electrons (negative charge
carriers) created by electron abundancy; usually formed by doping. An Organic molecule with π
conjugated system with electron withdrawing substituent groups and possess electrons as major
charge carrier is called n-type semiconductor.

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Perfluoropentacene (PFP) functions as an n-type organic semiconductor, a material used
in organic electronics due to its ability to conduct electrons. It is derived from the p-type
organic semiconductor pentacene by fluorination.

In Pentacene, when hydrogen atoms are substituted by highly electronegative fluorine atoms, it is
called Perfluoropentacene and acts as N-type of semiconductor. When a positive voltage is applied
between source and drain, electrons are induced in the source (gold). This permits the channel of
charges to drain through semiconductor-insulator interface as the bandgap between Fermi level of
gold (source) and LUMO energy of Perfluoropentacene is 1.95ev which is lesser than LUMO energy
of Pentacene. Therefore, it is n-type semiconductor.

Properties:
1. High Electron Affinity: A key property for its role as an n-type semiconductor.
2. Strong π–π Stacking: Enables efficient charge transport within thin films.
3. Mobility: Exhibits electron mobility in OFETs, such as 0.11 cm²/V·s observed in some
devices.
Applications:
1. Organic Field-Effect Transistors (OFETs): Used as an n-type component in high-
performance OFETs and ambipolar transistors, which can function at both positive
and negative gate voltages.
2. Complementary Circuits: Forms functional complementary inverter circuits with
pentacene (forming p-n junction), demonstrating high-voltage gain.
3. Non-Volatile Memory Devices: Its electronic characteristics are utilized in organic
memory applications.

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Differences between organic and inorganic memory devices

Feature / Property Organic Memory Devices Inorganic Memory Devices
Active Material π-conjugated organic molecules or Silicon-based or metal oxides
polymers (e.g., pentacene, (e.g., SiO₂, TiO₂, Ge₂Sb₂Te₅)
polyimide, PFP)
Device Fabrication Solution printing; processing, spin- High-temperature vacuum
coating, low-temperature, flexible deposition, photolithography on
substrates rigid silicon wafers
Substrate Type Flexible (plastic, paper, etc.), low- Rigid (silicon, glass), higher cost
cost
Charge Carrier Holes (p-type), electrons (n-type), Electrons and holes (band
or ambipolar conduction)
Switching Charge trapping, molecular Ion migration, phase change,
Mechanism conformational change, field- filament formation
induced states

Cost and Scalability

Low-cost, scalable, compatible Relatively high-cost, limited
with large-area production scalability to flexible or large-area
systems
Flexibility Highly flexible, suitable for Generally rigid, less suited for
wearable, curved, and lightweight flexible applications
devices
Operating Voltage Generally low-voltage operation May require higher voltages,
possible especially for phase-change
memories
Eco-Friendliness Organic, less toxic, more Metal-based; can produce toxic
environmentally friendly byproducts
Environmental Moderate; still under research, can High; stable under harsh
Stability be lower than inorganic in some conditions
cases
Data Retention / Moderate; still under research, can Mature technology, high retention
Endurance be lower than inorganic in some and endurance
cases

Construction, working and advantages of pentacene semiconductor chip

Pentacene semiconductor chip: A pentacene semiconductor chip is an organic electronic
device using pentacene as the semiconducting layer.

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Construction:

Working Principle:
Pentacene behaves like a p-type organic semiconductor in most cases.
[Link] voltage is applied to the gate electrode, an electric field is formed across the dielectric.
[Link] field induces charge carriers (holes) in the pentacene layer, forming a conductive channel
between source and drain electrodes.
[Link] amount of current that flows depend on the gate voltage.
4. Because of its π-conjugated structure, pentacene allows efficient charge delocalization, leading to
relatively high mobility for an organic material (~1 cm²/V·s).

Advantages of Pentacene-based semiconductor chips

• Low-Cost Fabrication: Can be processed at low temperatures, often using solution or vacuum
deposition techniques.
• Lightweight: Suitable for portable and wearable electronics.
• Flexibility: Can be fabricated on flexible substrates (plastic), useful in wearable electronics and
bendable displays.
• Transparency (optional): When used with transparent electrodes (like ITO), pentacene devices
can be made semi-transparent.
• Large-Area Applications: Easy to manufacture over large surfaces (e.g., roll-to-roll printing).
• Compatibility with Printing Techniques: Enables low-cost mass production compared to
silicon IC fabrication.
• Good Mobility (for organic materials): Among the highest mobilities for organic
semiconductors (~0.1–3 cm²/V·s).

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Resistive RAM (ReRAM) Materials

Introduction: TiO₂ (titanium dioxide) is widely used as the resistive switching layer in ReRAM devices
due to its excellent electrical insulating properties, chemical stability, and compatibility with CMOS
(Complementary Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor) processes. TiO₂ exhibits reliable bipolar and unipolar
resistive switching behavior, driven mainly by the formation and rupture of conductive filaments
composed of oxygen vacancies or titanium interstitials. This makes TiO₂ an ideal candidate for low-
power, high-speed, and scalable memory application.

Synthesis of TiO2-RAM by sol gel method

The sol-gel method for synthesizing TiO2-RAM composites involves a series of chemical reactions,
starting with the hydrolysis and condensation of titanium precursors, followed by gelation, drying, and
calcination. The resulting nanomaterials can exhibit a range of morphologies and properties depending
on the specific synthesis parameters.
The sol-gel synthesis of TiO2-RAM nanomaterials involves the following steps:
1. Precursor Preparation:
 Titanium precursor:
Typically, titanium alkoxides like titanium isopropoxide (TTIP) or titanium butoxide
(TBOT) are used as precursor (starting materials) which is dissolved in a suitable solvent like .
isopropyl alcohol, or water.
 Catalyst:
Acidic or basic catalysts like nitric acid or ammonia are often added to promote hydrolysis and
condensation.
 RAM (Rare Earth Metal):
To synthesize TiO2-RAM nanomaterials, a suitable rare earth metal precursor (e.g., nitrates,
chlorides) is incorporated into the sol.
2. Hydrolysis and Condensation:
 The titanium precursor is hydrolysed by adding water, leading to the formation of titanium
hydroxide species.
 These hydroxide species then undergo condensation reactions, forming a network of Ti-O-Ti
bonds and resulting in the formation of a sol (a colloidal suspension).
 The RAM precursor is also hydrolyzed and incorporated into the TiO 2 network during this
stage.
3. Gelation:
 The sol is allowed to gel, forming a solid, three-dimensional network.
 The gelation process can be influenced by factors like pH, temperature, and the concentration of
reactants.
4. Drying and Calcination:
 The gel is dried to remove the solvent, which can be done at low temperatures or using
supercritical drying techniques.

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 Calcination at elevated temperatures (e.g., 400-600°C) is often necessary to crystallize the TiO2
and remove any remaining organic species.
Properties of TiO2-RAM Nanomaterial
 Crystal Structure:
Ramsdellite is a monoclinic phase of TiO 2, distinct from the more common anatase and rutile.
 Surface Area:
Like other nanomaterials, TiO2-RAM possesses a high surface area, which enhances its
reactivity and catalytic activity.
 Optical Properties:
TiO2-RAM can exhibit unique light absorption and emission characteristics due to its crystal
structure and quantum size effects.
 Electronic Properties:
It can act as a semiconductor with tunable electronic band structure, potentially useful in solar
cells and sensors.
 Catalytic Activity:
The high surface area and electronic properties can make it a good catalyst for various
chemical reactions, particularly in the presence of UV or visible light.
 Chemical Stability:
TiO2-RAM, like other TiO2 phases, is generally chemically stable and resistant to corrosion,
making it suitable for various environmental conditions.
 Low Toxicity:
TiO2 is generally considered a non-toxic material, although potential health effects of
nanomaterials are still being investigated.

Applications of TiO2-RAM Nanomaterial

 Catalysis
TiO2-RAM can be used as a photocatalyst for degrading pollutants, organic compounds, and in
the production of clean energy through water splitting.
 Sensors
Its sensitivity to light and chemical environment can be leveraged in gas sensors and
biosensors.
 Energy Storage
The electronic properties of TiO2-RAM can be explored for use in energy storage devices like
batteries and supercapacitors.
 Photovoltaics
Its ability to absorb light and generate electron-hole pairs can be utilized in solar cells.

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Display Systems

Introduction: Display systems are technologies that convert electrical signals into visual information,
enabling interaction between humans and machines. They are essential in applications ranging from
televisions, computers, smartphones, and calculators to advanced scientific and medical instruments.
Over the years, display systems have evolved from bulky cathode ray tubes (CRTs) to flat-panel
technologies such as liquid crystal displays (LCDs), light-emitting diode (LED) displays, plasma panels,
and organic light-emitting diode (OLED) displays.

Liquid Crystals

The liquid crystals are a unique state of matter between solid (crystalline) and liquid (isotropic)
phases.
Liquid crystals (LCs) are a state of matter that has properties of both liquids and crystals. They are
characterized by having an ordered molecular arrangement likea crystal but the ability to flow like a
liquid.
The unique properties of LCs make them ideal for use in various applications such as LCDs.

Classification of Liquid Crystals:

i) Thermotropic liquid crystals
ii) Lyotropic liquid crystals

i) Thermotropic liquid crystal: A liquid crystal is said to be thermotropic if molecular orientation

is dependent on the temperature. By increasing the temperature, the increase in energy and
thereby movement of constituent molecules, will induce phase changes.

Thermotropic liquid crystals have been classified into the following types:

a) Nematic (or thread-like liquid crystals): The molecules move either sideways or up and down.
Increase in temperature decreases the degree of orientation. Example: p-azoxyphenetole

b) Smectic (or soap-like liquid crystals): The molecules in smectic crystals are oriented parallel to
each other as in the nematic phase but in layers.

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c) Cholesteric liquid crystals: Molecules in successive layers are slightly twisted and form helical
pattern.

d) Discotic liquid crystal: Molecules are arranged in a column arranged with disc like structure.

ii) Lyotropic liquid crystals: The orientational behaviour of Lyotropic crystals is a function of
concentration and solvent. These molecules are amphiphilic – they have both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic ends in their molecules. At low concentrations, molecules are randomly arranged and
higher concentration produces a definite pattern heads out and tail in. Soaps and detergents form
Lyotropic crystals when they combine with water.

Properties of liquid crystals (LCs):

 Anisotropy: LCs exhibit anisotropy, which means that their properties depend on the
direction in which they are measured.
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 Optical properties: LCs have unique optical properties, including birefringence, which
makes them useful in displays and other optical applications.
 Polarizability: LCs are polarizable, which means that they can respond to an electric field.
 Viscosity: LCs have a relatively high viscosity, which makes them resistantto flow.
 Phase transitions: LCs undergo phase transitions between different orderedstates this leads to
change in optical properties.
 Chemical stability: LCs are generally chemically stable, which makes themsuitable for use in
a variety of applications.

Applications:
1. LCD displays in consumer electronics and computers.
2. Temperature sensors and thermometers.
3. Optical shutters and filters.
4. Electro-optic modulators in telecommunications.
5. Optical data storage and holography.
6. Alignment layers in LCD manufacturing.
7. Biosensors and bio-imaging in medical applications.

Construction, working principle and applications of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Construction of LED: It consists of P–N Junction which is Core part made of direct band-gap
semiconductors (e.g., GaAs, GaP, GaN) that emit light during recombination. The bandgap
determines the color of emitted light. This is the area where the p- and n-type materials meet.
When forward-biased, electrons from the n-side and holes from the p-side recombine here,
releasing energy as photons (light).
• Anode & Cathode:
o Anode (+): Connected to p-type material (longer lead).
o Cathode (–): Connected to n-type material (shorter lead).
• Reflector Cup: A metallic cup that directs and enhances light emission.
• Encapsulation (Epoxy Dome): Transparent covering that protects the diode, focuses light, and
reduces losses.

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Applications of LED
1. Indicator Lamps: Power ON/OFF indicators in electronic devices.
2. Display Systems: Digital watches, calculators, seven-segment displays, advertising
boards.
3. Lighting: LED bulbs, tube lights, streetlights, automotive headlights due to high
efficiency and long lifespan.
4. Optical Communication: Used in remote controls, fiber optic communication (as light
sources).
5. Medical Applications: Surgical lighting, phototherapy, and diagnostic instruments.
6. Consumer Electronics: TVs, smartphones, laptops (as backlight and display panels).
7. Signaling: Traffic signals, railway signals, aviation lights.

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)

“OLEDs are thin film devices consisting of a stack of organic layers sandwiched between two
electrodes. OLEDs operate by converting electrical current into light via an organic emitter”.

Construction: An OLED is a multilayered semiconductor device in which organic materials emit

light under electrical excitation.
Its basic structure includes:
▪ Substrate: Usually, glass or flexible plastic that provides mechanical support.
▪ Anode: Transparent electrode (commonly Indium Tin Oxide, ITO) that injects holes into the
organic layer.
▪ Organic Layers:
o Hole Transport Layer (HTL): Facilitates hole movement from the anode to the emissive layer.
O Emissive Layer (EML): Made of conjugated organic molecules or polymers; light is

generated here when electrons and holes recombine.

o Electron Transport Layer (ETL): Guides electrons from the cathode to the emissive
layer efficiently.
▪ Cathode: Metal electrode (e.g., aluminum, calcium) that injects electrons into the device.

Working Principle: OLEDs operate based on electroluminescence of organic materials:

 When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, holes are injected from the anode and electrons
from the cathode.

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 These charge carriers move through the HTL and ETL into the emissive layer.
 Electron-hole recombination occurs in the emissive layer, forming excitons (bound electron-
hole pairs).
 Excitons release energy in the form of visible light when they decay radiatively.
 The emitted light passes through the transparent anode and substrate to produce a visible
display.

Applications:
• Displays: Smartphones, tablets, TVs, smartwatches, and flexible displays.
• Lighting: Energy-efficient, thin, and flexible lighting panels.
• Wearable Electronics: Curved or foldable screens and fashion-integrated lighting.
• Advanced Applications: Transparent and rollable displays, automotive dashboards, and signage.

Active Matrix Organic Light Emitting Diodes (AMOLEDs)

Glass Substrate
TFT
Anode
Organic Layer
Cathode
Cover Lens

Construction of AMOLEDs
An AMOLED is a type of OLED display that uses an active matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs)
to control each individual pixel. It consists of:
▪ Substrate: Usually glass or flexible plastic, providing mechanical support.
▪ Thin-Film Transistor (TFT) Layer: Each pixel is connected to a TFT that acts as a switch, allowing
precise control of current.
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▪ Organic Layers:
o Hole Injection Layer (HIL) – facilitates injection of holes from the anode.
o Hole Transport Layer (HTL) – transports holes to the emissive layer.
o Emissive Layer (EML) – contains organic molecules that emit light when electrons and
holes recombine.
o Electron Transport Layer (ETL) – transports electrons from the cathode to the emissive layer.
o Electron Injection Layer (EIL) – aids electron injection from the cathode.
▪ Cathode and Anode: Transparent anode (often ITO) and metal cathode.
▪ Encapsulation Layer: Protects organic materials from moisture and oxygen.

Working Principle of AMOLEDs

When voltage is applied across a pixel, the TFT switch turns on, allowing current to flow through
the organic layers.
▪ Electrons from the cathode and holes from the anode meet in the emissive layer
. ▪ Recombination of electrons and holes generates photons, producing light.
▪ Each pixel emits light independently, enabling high contrast, fast response, and precise color
control.

Applications of AMOLEDs
• Smartphone and Tablet Displays: High-resolution, flexible, and energy-efficient screens.
• Wearables: Smartwatches and fitness bands with curved or flexible displays.
• Televisions: Large, ultra-thin displays with high contrast ratios.
• Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): Fast response time for immersive experiences.
• Automotive Displays: Instrument panels and infotainment systems with wide viewing angles.

Quantum Light Emitting Diodes (QLEDs)

Quantum light-emitting diodes (QLEDs) are a type of electroluminescent device that utilize
quantum dots to produce high-performance displays. QLEDs have several advantages over
traditional display technologies.

Construction:

Viewing Screen
Red, Green, Blue Subpixel
filters
LCD Layer
Red and Green Quantum Dots
Blue LED Backlight

Quantum Light Emitting Diodes are display devices that utilize quantum dots (QDs)—
semiconductor nanocrystals with size-dependent optical properties.
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Their construction generally involves:
• Substrate: Glass or flexible polymer base.
• Backplane (Active Matrix): Typically made of amorphous silicon (a-Si) or indium gallium zinc
Oxide (IGZO) thin-film transistors (TFTs) for pixel addressing.
• Blue LED Layer: Provides excitation light for the quantum dots.
• Quantum Dot Layer: A thin film of red and green quantum dots dispersed in a polymer matrix;
these absorb blue light and re-emit at longer wavelengths (red/green).
• Optical Layers: Include color filters, barrier layers, and encapsulation for stability.
Working Principle:
• Quantum dots exhibit quantum confinement, meaning their electronic and optical properties
depend on particle size.
• When the blue LED backlight excites the QD layer: Red QDs emit red light, Green QDs emit
green light and unconverted blue light passes directly.
• This produces high-purity RGB colors with tunable emission spectra.
• In some advanced electrically driven QLEDs, quantum dots act as direct electroluminescent
materials where injected electrons and holes recombine within QDs to emit light, eliminating the
need for a backlight.

Applications:
1. Display Technology: QLED TVs, monitors, and smartphones with wide color gamut, high
brightness, and improved energy efficiency.
2. Optoelectronic Devices: Quantum dot lasers, photodetectors, and optical sensors.
3. Biomedical Imaging: Fluorescent probes for high-resolution cell and tissue imaging due to narrow
emission spectra.
4. Lighting: Quantum dot-based LEDs for solid-state lighting with precise color tuning and high
luminous efficacy.
5. Solar Cells: Integration into quantum dot photovoltaics for enhanced absorption and spectral
conversion.
(OR)
Quantum Light Emitting Diodes (QLEDs)
Quantum light-emitting diodes (QLEDs) are a type of electroluminescent device that utilize
quantum dots to produce high-performance displays. QLEDs have several advantages over
traditional display technologies.

Construction:
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A QLED is a self-emissive display/device in which quantum dots themselves emit light when
electrical energy is supplied. Unlike LCD-based QLED TVs (which still use a backlight), a true QLED
does not need a backlight.

A typical QLED is composed of the following layers:

1. Substrate
– Usually glass or a flexible plastic substrate that supports all layers.
2. Anode
– Injects holes into the device.
3. Hole Injection Layer (HIL)
– Improves hole injection from the anode.
4. Hole Transport Layer (HTL)
– Carries holes toward the quantum dot layer.
5. Quantum Dot Emissive Layer
– Contains semiconductor nanocrystals (quantum dots).
– These dots emit pure, tunable colors (red, green, blue) when electrons and holes recombine.
6. Electron Transport Layer (ETL)
– Transports electrons to the emissive layer.
7. Electron Injection Layer (EIL)
– Helps electrons move easily from cathode to ETL.
8. Cathode
– Injects electrons into the device.
9. Encapsulation Layer
– Protects quantum dots from air and moisture.

Working principle:
 When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, holes are injected from the anode and
electrons from the cathode.
 Holes move through the HTL. Electrons move through the ETL. Both charges travel towards
the quantum dot layer.
 Electrons and holes meet inside the quantum dot emissive layer. They recombine to form
excitons.
 When excitons relax, they release photons (light).
 The color of emitted light depends on the size of the quantum dots (small = blue, medium
= green, large = red).
 Since light is produced by the quantum dots themselves, the device works without any
backlight and provides high brightness, pure colors, and excellent contrast.

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