Chapter 2: Characters

You
July 11, 2024

Contents
7 Representations and characters 2

8 Character values 7

9 Character degrees 9

10 Tensor products 10

11 Products of characters 11

12 G-invariant bilinear forms 12

13 Induced representations 13

14 Clifford theory 17

15 Extension of representations 19

16 Frobenius groups 21

1
7 Representations and characters
7.1 Definition
Let A be a K-algebra (K a field).

a) A representation of A over K of degree n is a K-algebra homomorphism

ρ : A → EndK (V ), where V is a K-vector space of dimension n :=
dimK (V ) ≥ 0.
b) A matrix representation of A over K of degree n > 0 is a K-algebra
homomorphism ρ : A → K n×n .

7.2 Remark
Let K be a field, G a group. There is a close connection between (matrix)
representations of G and of KG:

• If ρ : G → GL(V ) is a representation of G, then

P P
KG → EndK (V ), ag g 7→ ag ρ(g)
g∈G g∈G

is a representation of KG.
• If ρ : KG → EndK (V ) is a representation of KG, then ρ|G : G → GL(V )
is a representation of G.

• If ρ : G → GLn (K) is a matrix representation of G, then

KG → K n×n ,
P P
ag g 7→ ag ρ(g)
g∈G g∈G

is a matrix representation of KG.

• If ρ : KG → K n×n is a matrix representation of KG, then ρ|G : G →
GLn (K) is a matrix representation of G.

7.3 Definition/Remark
Let A be a K-algebra (K is a field), ρ : A → EndK (V ) a representation or
ρ : A → K n×n a matrix representation.
a) The map χV = χρ : A → K, a 7→ tr(ρ(a)) is called the character of V or
ρ.
b) If A = KG, then ρ and χρ are uniquely determined by ρ|G and χρ |G
respectively. Therefore χρ is often identified with the map χV = χρ :
G → K, g 7→ tr(ρ(g)), called the character of G afforded by ρ.

2
7.4 Example
1. G = S3 , ρ3 : S3 → GL2 (K)
2. Let K be a field, G a group acting on a set X = {x1 ...xn }, ρ : G → GL(V )
permutation representation associated with X. Then V has a K-basis
B = {ex1 ...exn } with ρ(g)(exi ) = egxi .
χV (g) = tr(ρ(g)) = number of 1’s on the diagonal of ρB (g) = |{xi ∈ X |
gxi = xi }| = number of fixed permutations of g on X.
(
|G|, g = 1
3. ρreg is a regular representation, |G| < ∞ ⇒ χreg (g) =
0, g ̸= 1
the regular character of G

7.5 Lemma
a) Equivalent representations (or isomorphic modules) have the same char-
acter.

Proof. For matrix representations: Let ρ1 , ρ2 : G → GLn (K) be equiv-

alent matrix representations. Then ∃T ∈ GLn (K) : ∀g ∈ G : ρ2 (g) =
T ρ1 (g)T −1 ⇒ ∀g ∈ G : χρ2 (g) = tr(ρ2 (g)) = tr(T ρ1 (g)T −1 ) = tr(ρ1 (g)) =
χρ1 (g).

b) For all groups G: Every character χ of G is a class function, i.e., ∀ g, h ∈

G : χ(hgh−1 ) = χ(g) (constant on the conjugacy classes of G).

Proof. ∀ g, h ∈ G : χ(hgh−1 ) = tr((ρ(hgh−1 )) = tr(ρ(h)ρ(g)ρ(h−1 )) =

χ(g).

7.6 Definition/Remark
Let G be a finite group, K splitting field, char(K) ∤ |G| (e.g., K = C), C1 , ..., Cr
the conjugacy classes of G, gj ∈ Cj . Then G has exactly r irreducible characters
χ1 , ..., χr (6.11 c). We set IrrK (G) = {χ1 , ..., χr }. For K = C, we set IrrC (G)
and call (χi (gj ))i,j=1...r ∈ Cr×r the character table of G.

7.7 Example
Character table of G = S3 :
1 (12) (123)
χ1 1 1 1
χ2 1 -1 1
χ3 2 0 -1
There are 3 irreducible representations on S3 : trivial representation, sign and
permutation representation. (?)

3
7.8 Lemma/Definition
Let G be a finite group, K a field, χ = χV a character of G.
a) dimK (V ) is called the degree of χ. If char(K) = 0 : dimK (V ) = χ(1).

b) If dimK (V ) = 1: χ is called a linear character. It is a group homomor-

phism χ : G → K × .
c) Sums of characters are characters: χV + χW = χV ⊕W .
d) For U ≤KG V : χV = χU + χV /U ⇒ every character χ is a sum of
irreducible characters.
P
e) If K is a splitting field for G, char(K) ∤ |G| : χreg = χ(1)χ,
χ∈IrrK (G)
χ(1)2
P
|G| =
χ∈IrrK (G)

Proof.

d) Follows from (2.2)

e)

7.9 Lemma
Let A be a semisimple K-algebra (K a field), ρ : A → EndK (V ) irreducible
Lr
representation, EndA (V ) = K · idV , A = Ai as in (6.6), Aj is the V -
i=1
r
L
homogeneous component of A. Then ker(ρ) = Ai and ρ|Aj → EndK (V )
i=1,i̸=j
is K-algebra isomorphism.

From now on in paragraph 7: G is a finite group, K is a splitting

field for G, char(K) ∤ |G|.

7.10 Theorem
a) IrrK (G) is linearly independent over K.

b) ∀ KG-modules V1 , V2 with dimK (Vi ) < ∞ (i = 1, 2) : V1 ∼

=KG V2 ⇔
χV1 = χV2 .

Proof.

4
 r
, Ai ∼
=KG Lni i , Li is irreducible as in (6.6), χi := χLi . Then
L
a) Let KG =
i=1
by 7.9 ∀i = 1...r : ∃ai ∈ Ai : χi (ai ) = tr(ρLi (ai )) = 1 and

r
Ai , Ai ∼
=KG Lni i , Li as in (6.6), 1 =
L P
Recall: KG = εi - decomposition
i=1
r
P
of 1 ⇒ ε1 ...εr are orthogonal idempotents (6.4). ∀aj ∈ Aj : 1 · aj = ( εi )aj
i=1
We can give a formula for ε1 ...εr :

7.11 Theorem
r
Ai , Ai ∼
Pn
=KG Lni i , Li irreducible as in (6.6), 1 =
L
Let KG = i=1 εi -
i=1
decomposition of 1, χi := χLi ⇒ ∀i = 1...r : εi = χ|G|
i (1)
χi (g −1 )g.
P
g∈G

7.12 Corollary (Generalized Orthogonality Relations)

χi (h)
1
χi (gh)χj (g −1) =
P
Let IrrK (G) = {χ1 ...χr }. Then ∀h ∈ G : |G| χi (1) δij
g∈G
δij - Kronecker delta

7.13 Definition / Remark

Cl(G, K) := {ψ : G → K | ∀g, h ∈ G : ψ(hgh−1 ) = ψ(g)} is called the space of
(K-valued) class functions on G. It is a K-vector space with dimK (Cl(G, K)=
number
P of conjugate classes of G. (·, ·): Cl(G, K) × Cl(G, K) 7→ K, (ϕ, ψ)G :=
1 −1
|G| ϕ(g)ψ(g ) is a symmetric bilinear form on Cl(G, K).
g∈G

7.14 Orthogonality relations

Let IrrK (G) = {χ1 ...χr }.

a) (χi , χj )G = δij . IrrK (G) is an orthonormal basis of Cl(G, K).

b) If V is a KG-module, dimK (V ) < ∞, with character χV , then χV =
Pr
(χV , χi )G χi , where (χi , χj )G is the multiplicity of Li as a composition
i=1
factor of V .
(
r |CG (g)| if g ∼ h
−1)
P
c) χi (g)χi (h =
i=1 0 if g ≁ h

5
7.15 Remark / Definition
Let G be a group, N ⊴ G, π : G → G/N, g 7→ gN the canonical projection.
a) If ρ : G/N → GL(V ) is a representation of G/N , then ρ ◦ π : G → GL(V )
is a representation of G.

b) If ρ : G/N → GLn (K) is a matrix representation of G/N , then ρ ◦ π :

G → GL(V ) is a matrix representation of G.
We say that ρ is obtained from ρ by inflation. ρ is irreducible ⇔ ρ is irreducible.

7.16 Example
Let K = C.
1. Character table of G = S4 :

1 (12) (123) (1234) (12)(34)

χ1 1 1 1 1 1
χ2 1 -1 1 -1 1
χ3 2 0 -1 0 2
χ4 3 1 0 -1 -1
χ5 3 -1 0 1 -1

Number of elements in the conjugacy classes:

(1) - 1
(12) - 6
(123) - 8
(1234) - 6
(12)(34) - 3

χ3 : obtained from S4 / < (12)(34), (13)(24) > by inflation.

1
θ(g)θ(g −1) = 1 ∗ θ2 ((1)) + 6 ∗ θ2 ((12)) +
P
Scalar product: (θ, θ)G = 24
g∈G
8 ∗ θ2 ((123)) + 6 ∗ θ2 ((1234)) + 3 ∗ θ2 ((12)(34))
Let θ be the natural permutation character of S4 . Then θ(1) = 4, θ((12)) =
2, θ((123)) = 1, θ((1234)) = θ((12)(34)) = 0. (θ, θ)G = 2.
5 5
m2i = 2. That means
P P
θ= mi χi (according to 7.13). Then (θ, θ)G =
i=1 i=1
θ is the sum of two distinct χi .
(θ, χ1 )G ) = 1 ⇒ θ = χ1 +χ4 ⇒ χ4 = θ−χ1 . We get χ5 from orthogonality
relations.
2. Character table of G = C3 :

6
8 Character values
8.1 Definition
Let S be a commutative ring, R ⊆ S a subring.

a) α ∈ S is integral over R ⇔ ∃ monic polynomial f with coefficients in R

(f ∈ R[x]): f (α) = 0.
b) α ∈ C is integral or an algebraic integer ⇔ α is integral over Z.

8.2 Lemma
a) α ∈ S is integral over R ⇔ ∃ subring R ⊆ T ⊆ S such that α ∈ T and T
is finitely generated (= has a finite generating set) as R-module.
b) ∀ α, β ∈ S : α, β integral over R ⇒ α + β, α − β, αβ are integral over R.

c) OS (R) := {α ∈ S | α is integral over R} is a subring of S with R ⊆

OS (R). It is called the integral closure of R in S.
d) α ∈ Q is an algebraic integer ⇔ α ∈ Z.

Proof.

8.3 Lemma
Let G be a finite group, χ character of a matrix representation ρ of G over a
field K, g ∈ G, g m = 1. Then χ(g) = ξ1 + ... + ξn , where ξj ∈ K (algebraic
closure of K) are the m-th roots of unity and n is the degree of χ.
Furthermore, ∀j ∈ Z : χ(g j ) = ξ1j + ... + ξnj . If char(K) = 0 : χ(g) is integral
over Z.

Proof.

8.4 Remark
Let G be a finite group, m := exp(G) := lcm{ord(g) | g ∈ G} the exponent of
G, char(K) = 0. We consider Q as a subfield of K and fix a primitive m-th root
of unity ζm ∈ K. There is a unique field isomorphism ϕ : Q(ζm ) → Q(e2πi/m )
with ϕ(ζm ) = e2πi/m . Via ϕ, we identify K ∩ Q(ζm ) with a subfield of C. For
every character χ of a representation of G over K, we have ∀g ∈ G : χ(g) ∈
K ∩ Q(ζm ⊆ C. In this way, we can consider |χ(g)|, ...

7
8.5 Lemma
Let G be a finite group, K a field, char(K) = 0, χ character of a matrix
representation ρ of G over K. Then
a) ∀g ∈ G : |χ(g)| ≤ χ(1) and ”=” ⇔ ρ(g) = ξ.

b) ∀g ∈ G : χ(g) = χ(1) ⇔ g ∈ ker(ρ).

c)

8.6 Definition
Let G be a finite group, K a field, char(K) = 0, χ character of a matrix
representation ρ of G over K. Then
a) ker(χ) := {g ∈ G | χ(g) = χ(1)} = ker(ρ) is called the kernel of χ.

b) {g ∈ G | |χ(g)| = χ(1)} = {g ∈ G | ∃ξ ∈ K × : ρ(g) = ξIn } is called the

center of χ.

8
9 Character degrees
In this paragraph, G is a finite group, K is a splitting field for G,
char(k) ∤ |G|.

9.1 Theorem
Let ρ : G → GL(V ) be an irreducible representation with character χ. Then:
a) ∀z ∈ Z(KG)∃w(z) ∈ K : ρ(z) = w(z) · idV .
b) The map w : Z(KG) → K, z 7→ w(z) is a K-algebra homomorphism.
|C|χ(g)
c) ∀ conjugate classes C = g G of G: w(C + ) = χ(1)

d) If char(K) = 0 : w(C + ) is integral over Z.

Proof.

9.2 Corollary
Let char(K) = 0. Then ∀χ ∈ IrrK (G) : χ(1) | |G|.

9.3 Lemma
Let χ ∈ IrrK (G), z ∈ Z(G), g ∈ G with χ(z) ̸= χ(1) and g ∼G gz. Then
χ(g) = 0.

9.4 Theorem
Let char(K) = 0. Then ∀χ ∈ IrrK (G) : χ(1) | [G : Z(G)].

9.5 Theorem (Burnside’s)

Let ρ : G → GL(V ) be an irreducible representation over C with character χ and
G = g G a conjugacy class of G with gcd(|C|, χ(1)) = 1. Then ρ(g) ∈ Z(ρ(G))
or χ(g) = 0.

9.6 Theorem
Let G be a finite non-abelian simple group. Then {1} is the only conjugate class
of G of prime power size.

9.7 Theorem (Burnside’s pa q b )

Let G be a group of order |G| = pa q b (p, q are primes, a, b ≥ 0). Then G is
solvable.

9
10 Tensor products
Let R be a ring with 1, not necessarily commutative.

10.1 Definition
Let M be a right R-module, N a left R-module.

a) Let A be an abelian group . A map f : M × N → A is called balanced

(over R) if

′ ′ ′ ′
∀m, m ∈ M, n, n ∈ N : f (m + m , n) = f (m, n) + f (m , n)

′ ′
f (m, n + n ) = f (m, n) + f (m, n )

∀m ∈ M, n ∈ N, r ∈ R : f (mr, n) = f (m, rn)


b) A tensor product of M and N is a pair (M ⊗R N, ⊗) where (M ⊗R N

is an abelian group and ⊗ : M × N → (M ⊗R N , (m, n) 7→ m ⊗ n is
a balanced map with the following ”minimal property”: for all abelian
groups A and all balanced maps f : M × N → A there is a unique group
homomorphism ϕ : M ⊗R N → A such that ϕ ◦ ⊗ = f .

Tensor product allows arguments about bilinear maps (e.g. multiplication) to

be carried out in terms of linear maps.

10
11 Products of characters

11
12 G-invariant bilinear forms

12
13 Induced representations
Let S, R be rings (with 1, not necessarily commutative). Let W be a left R-
module, V an (S, R) module (a left S-module and a right R-module), P ∀a ∈ R,
b ∈ S, v ∈ V : (bv)a = b(va). Then V ⊗R W is a left S-module via b( vi ⊗wi ) =
P i
(bvi ) ⊗ wi
i

Proof. Fix b ∈ S ⇒ V × W → V ⊗R W , ... is balanced. Therefore, there exists

aPgroup homomorphism
P ⊗R W → V ⊗R W... ⇒ scalar multiplication
sb : V P
b( vi ⊗ wi ) = sb ( vi ⊗ wi ) = (bvi ) ⊗ wi is well-defined. Verification of the
i i i
properties of module (3.1) is straightforward.

13.1 Definition
Let G be a group, K a field, H ⩽ G, W a KH-module. The (left) KG-module
W ↑G G
H := W ↑ := KG ⊗ W is called the KG-module induced from W .
(We use the fact that KG is a (KG, KH) bimodule).

13.2 Theorem
m
F
Let G, K, H, W be as in (13.1), G = ti H (disjoint union).
i=1

m P
P
a) KG = { ai,h ti h | ai,h ∈ K, ai,h ̸= 0 for only finitely many h ∈
i=1 h∈H
m
P
H} = { ti xi | xi ∈ KH}
i=1

m m m
b) W ↑G = { ti ⊗wi′ ⇔ ∀i : wi = wi′ ).
P P P
ti ⊗wi | wi ∈ W } and ( ti ⊗wi =
i=1 i=1 i=1

c) Let B = {b1 ...bn } be a K-basis of W . Then B̃ := ti ⊗ bi | 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤

j ≤ n is a K-basis of W ↑G .
d) dimK (W ↑G ) = [G : H]dimK (W ).

Proof.

a) Obvious
b) W ↑G = KG ⊗KH W
m
c) < B˜>K = W ↑G from (b). Let
P P P
aij ti ⊗ bj = 0 ⇒ ti ⊗ aij bj = 0
i,j i=1 j

13
13.3 Remark
m
F
Let G, K, H, W be as in (13.1). G = ti H, ρ : H → GL(W ) the representa-
i=1
tion afforded by W , B = {b1 ...bn } be a K-basis of W , g ∈ G, ρB (h) = (aij (h))
n
P
(i.e., hbj = aij (h)bj , aij ∈ K)., gtj = tgj hj (hj ∈ H), ....
i=1
n
P
Then g(tj ⊗ bj ′ ) = (gtj ) ⊗ bj ′ = (tgj hj ) ⊗ bj ′ = tgj ⊗ hj bj ′ = tgj ⊗ akj (hj )bk .
k=1
Let

13.4 Example
1. G = S3 =< (12), (123) >, H :=< (23) >, K = C, G = 1H ∪ (123)H ∪
(132)H
S
2. G a finite group, H a subgroup of G, G = ti H, K a field, W a trivial
KH-module ⇒ B̃ = {t1 ⊗ 1...tm ⊗ 1} is a K-basis of K ↑G and ∀

13.5 Remark
m
F
Let G be a finite group, H ⩽ G, G = ti H, K a field, char(K) ∤ |G|,
i=1
m
ϕ ∈ Cl(H, K). ϕ ↑G G
ϕ̇(t−1
P
H := ϕ ↑ : G → K, g 7→ i gti ), where
i=1
(
ϕ(x), x ∈ H
ϕ̇(x) =
0x∈/H

Then ϕ ↑G ∈ Cl(G, K) and ϕ ↑G does not depend on the choice of ti ’s.

m m P
Proof. ∀g ∈ G : ϕ ↑G (g) = ϕ̇(t−1 ϕ̇(h−1 t−1 1
P P P
i gti ) = i gti h) = |H| ϕ̇(x−1gx) ⇒
i=1 i=1 h∈H x∈G
ϕ ↑G does not depend on the choice of ti ’s.
∀g, y ∈ G :

13.6 Frobenious reciprocity

Let G be a finite group, K is splitting field for G, char(K) ∤ |G|, χ ∈ Cl(G, K),
H ⩽ G, ϕ ∈ Cl(H, K). Then (χ, ϕ ↑G )G = (χ ↓H , ϕ)H .
m m
Proof. (χ, ϕ ↑G )G = (ϕ ↑G , χ)G = 1
ϕ̇(t−1 −1 1
ϕ̇(t−1 −1
P P P P
|G| i gti )χ(g )= |G| i gti )χ(g )=
g∈G i=1 i=1 g∈ti Ht−1
i
m P
1
ϕ̇(h)χ(ti ht−1 1 −1 1
P P P
|G| i ) = |G| [G : H] ϕ̇(h)χ(h )= |H|
i=1 h∈H h∈H h∈H
−1
phi(h)χ(h ) = () = ()

14
13.7 Example
Restricting characters of S4 to S3

13.8 Remark
(New interpretation of Frobenious reciprocity): Let G be a finite group, K = C,
V, V ′ - CG-modules, dimC V, dimC V ′ < ∞, χ = χV , χ′ = χV ′ .
a) (χ, χ′ )G = dimC HomCG (V, V ′ )

b) For H ⩽ G, W a CH-module, dimC W < ∞: HomCG (W ↑G , V ) ∼

=CH
(W, V ↓H ).

13.9 Frobenious-Nakayama reciprocity

Let G be a finite group, K an arbitrary field, H ⩽ G, V a KG-module, W a
KH-module. Then HomKG (W ↑G , V ) ∼ =K HomKG (W, V ↓H ).

13.10 Properties of induction ↑G

H
Let G be a finite group, K a field, H ⩽ G, G = ∪ti H, W a KH-module.
G∼
1. (Transitivity) ∀L ⩽ H ⩽ G, KL-modules W : (W ↑H G
L ) ↑H =KG W ↑L .

2. ∀KH-modules W, W ′ : (W ⊕ W ′ ) ↑G ∼
=KG W ↑G ⊕(W ′ ) ↑G
m
L
3. If V is a KG-module and V = ti W as K-vector space (W ⩽KH V ),
i=1
then V ∼
=KG W ↑ .G

Next, we discuss the Mackey formula, which is another relation-

G ∼
ship between induction and restriction. (For L, H ⩽ G : W ↑G
L ↓H = ???)

13.11 Definition
Let G be a group, H, L subgroups of G.
a) For g ∈ G : HgL := {hgl | h ∈ H, l ∈ L} is called the (H, L)-double
coset of g.

b) H\G/L := {HgL | g ∈ G} - the set of all double cosets of G.

13.12 Lemma/Definition
Let G be a group, H, L subgroups of G.
a) ∀g ∈ G : HgL is a disjoint union of right cosets of H and a disjoint union
of left cosets of L.

15
 S
b) The (H, L)-double cosets partition G. (which means G = HgL and
g∈G
Hg1 L, Hg2 L are either the same or disjoint and ∀g ∈ G : HgL ̸= ∅).
We write [H\G/L] for the set of representatives for the (H, L)-double cosets of
G.

13.13 Example
G = S3 , H = L =< (12) > (= S2 )
The left cosets: G/L = {}

13.14 Remark
Let G be a group, L subgroup of G, g ∈ G, K a field, W a KL-module.
a) g L := gLg −1 ⩽ G. (L conjugate from the left by g)

b) g W := g ⊗W ⊆ W ↑G g g
L is a K L-module via l(g ⊗w) = g ⊗lw (∈ g ⊗W =
g
W ).

13.15 Mackey formula

Let G be a finite group, H, L ⩽ G, K a field, W a KH-module. Then
G ∼ g
(W ↑G ((g W ) ↓H∩L H
L
L ) ↓H =KH g L ) ↑H∩g L
g∈[H\G/L]

Corresponding statement for characters:

13.16 Notation
Let G be a group, L ⩽ G, g ∈ G, K a field, W a KL-module, ϕ := χW .
a) g ϕ :g L → K, x 7→ ϕ(g −1 xg) is a character of g L.
b) ϕg : Lg → K, x 7→ ϕ(gxg −1 ) is a character of Lg := g −1 Lg.

13.17 Mackey formula for characters

Let G be a finite group, H, L ⩽ G, K a field, ϕ a character of a KL-module.
Then
g
a) (ϕ ↑G G
((g ϕ) ↓H∩L H
P
L ) ↓H = g L ) ↑H∩g L
g∈[H\G/L]

b) If HL = G : (ϕ ↑G G G H
L ) ↓H = ϕ ↓H∩L ↑H∩L

16
14 Clifford theory
We consider a special case of induction where H is normal in G.
In this paragraph: G is a finite group, K is a field, N is a normal
subgroup of G, all modules are finite-dimensional K-vector spaces.
• Let W be a KN -module, g ∈ G ⇒g W = g ⊗KN W is a KN -module. Let
ρ = ρW : N → GL(W ) be the representation afforded by W and ϕ := χW
the character of W . Then:
g
ρ := ρgW : x 7→ ρW (g −1 xg) and g ϕ := χgW : N → K,
• We say that g W (resp. g ρ) is conjugate to W (resp. ρ)
• W is irreducible ⇔g W is irreducible
As a consequence, ϕ ∈ IrrK (N ) ⇔g ϕ ∈ IrrK (N ). Therefore, G acts on
IrrK (N ) by

14.1 Theorem (Clifford)

F
Let V be a simple KG-module, G =
m
P
a) Let W be a simple submodule of V ↓N . Then V ↓N = ti W , where
i=1
ti W ∼
=tKN
i
W . In particular, V ↓N is semisimple and a direct sum of
KN -submodules of V ↓N .
b) Let W1 ...Wn be a set of representatives for the isomorphism classes of
P ′ n
L
simple KN -submodules of V ↓ N , Vi := W . Then V ↓N = Vi
W ′? i=1
(direct sum of KN -submodules.
c) IG (Wi ) := {g ∈ G |g Wi ∼
=KN Wi } (”Initial subgroup of Wi ”). Then:
Proof. a) ∀g ∈ G, W ′ ⩽KN V ↓N a simple submodule: Φ :g W ′ = g ⊗KN
W → gW ′ , g × w 7→ gw is surjective KN -homomorphism.
′

P
b) From (a), V ↓N is a direct sum of simple modules ⇒ V ↓N = Vi .
c)

14.2 Corollary
Let W be a simple KN -module, IG (W ) = {g ∈ G |g W ∼
=KN W } = N (the
smallest possible). Then W ↑G
N is irreducible.
Proof. Let V be a simple factor module of W ↑G ⇒ canonical projection W ↑G →
V is an non-zero element of HomKG (W ↑G , V ). ⇒ {0} ̸= HomKG (W ↑G
, V)∼
=K
Corresponding statements for characters:

17
14.3 Theorem
G acts on Irr(N ) via g ∗ ϕ :=g ϕ. For

14.4 Example
G = S4 , N = V4 , K = C.

14.5 Clifford correspondence

14.6 Notation
14.7 Clifford correspondence for characters
14.8 Theorem
14.9 Remark
14.10 Remark
Let G be a finite group,
Strategy to compute the character table of G:
1. Determine a set of representations for the conjugation action of G on
Irr(N ).
2. Compute the initial subgroup IG (ϕi )
3. Determine
4. Compute Irr(G)

18
15 Extension of representations
In this paragraph: G is a finite group, K a field, N a normal subgroup
of G, all modules are finite-dimensional K-vector spaces, W a simple
KN -module, IG (W ) = G.

Goal : find tools to determine all simple KG-modules Vj ↓N ∼

=KN W ⊕...⊕W .

15.1 Lemma
a) Let V be a simple KG-module such that Vj ↓N ∼=KN W ⊕ ... ⊕ W . Then
V is isomorphic to a factor module of W ↑G .
b) Conversely: Let V ′ be a composition factor of W ↑G . Then V ′ ↓N ∼
=KN
W ⊕ ... ⊕ W .

Proof. a) Frobenius-Nakayama
b) Maskey’s theorem

15.2 Lemma
(A technical lemma to prove the next theorem)
Let K be a field, char(K) ∤ |G|, EndKN (W ) = K · idW , IG (W ) = G, V a
simple KG-module with V ↓N = W . For a KG/N -module X, let X ′ be the
KG-module obtained from X by inflation
a) For all simple KG/N -modules X: the KG-module X ′ ⊗K V is simple.
b) For all simple KG/N -modules X1 , X2 :

15.3 Notation
G
Let ψ be a character of G/N . We write Inf lG/N (ψ) for the inflation of ψ to G.

15.4 Theorem
Let ϕ ∈ Irr(N ), χ ∈ Irr(G) with χ ↓N = ϕ. Then
(
Irr(G/N )
Φ:
ψ 7→ χ · Inf l
is a bijection and ...
Proof. • Φ is well-defined and injective: follows from (15.1) and (15.2)
• ∀ψ ∈ Irr(G/N ) consider scalar product (ϕ ↑G , Inf lG/N
G
(ψ))G =
• Compute degrees:

19
 • Φ is surjective

15.5 Theorem
Let K be an algebraically closed field, G/N cyclic, IG (W ) = G. Then ∃ a simple
KG-module V such that V ↓N = W .
Proof. Let G =< N, g >, G = g i N , ρ : N → GL(W ) the representation
F
afforded by W .

15.6 Example
G = S5 , N = A5

20
16 Frobenius groups
16.1 Definition
A finite group G is called a Frobenius group if there exists a proper subgroup
H such that ∀g ∈ G\H : H ∩g H = {1}. In this case, H is called a Frobenius
complement.

16.2 Example
1.
2. G = S3 is a Frobenius group with Frobenius complement H =< (12) >.
3. G = A4
4.

5. Fq is a finite field, q > 2, for a ∈ F×

q , b ∈ Fq :

16.3 Remark
Let G be a finite group. Then G is a Frobenius group ⇔ G acts transitively on
some set X with 1 < |X| < |G| such that no g ∈ G\{1} fixes more than one
point.

16.4 Lemma
S
Let G be a Frobenius group with Frobenius complement H and N := (G\ )
g∈G

16.5 Lemma
Let G be a Frobenius group with Frobenius complement H and

16.6 Theorem (Frobenius)

Let G be a Frobenius group with Frobenius complement H. Then there exists
a unique N ⊴ G such that G = HN , H ∩ N = {1}. N is called the Frobenius
kernel of G.

16.7 Characters of Frobenius groups

21