1.

1 Physical Nature of Matter

1.1.1 Matter Is Made Up of Particles
• Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass.
• Everything around us (chair, air, water, sand, clouds, pencil, book) is made up of matter.
• Ancient Indian philosophers believed matter is made of five basic elements (Panch Tatva):
Prithvi (earth), Jal (water), Agni (fire), Vayu (air), Akash (sky).
• Modern science: Matter is made up of very small tiny particles (atoms and molecules) that
cannot be seen with naked eyes.

1.1.2 How Small Are These Particles of Matter?

• Activity example: Dissolve 2–3 crystals of potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) in 10 mL
water; then take 10 mL from it and add to 90 mL water.
• Colour spreads evenly; this shows matter is particulate (made of tiny particles), not
continuous.
• Particles are so small that even after diluting millions of times, the solution retains colour.

1.2 Characteristics of Particles of Matter

1.2.1 Particles of Matter Have Space between Them
• Particles of matter are not tightly packed; there are gaps/interstices between them.
• Evidence: A few drops of ink spread to colour a whole bucket of water; sugar dissolves
completely in tea.
• Particles of one substance get into empty spaces between particles of another substance.

1.2.2 Particles of Matter Are Continuously Moving

• Particles of matter are in constant random motion (kinetic energy).
• Evidence: The smell of hot sizzling food reaches several metres away, but cold food smell
needs to be close.
• Reason: On heating, particles gain kinetic energy, move faster, diffuse (spread) faster.

1.2.3 Particles of Matter Attract Each Other

• Particles attract each other due to force of attraction.
 • Strength of attraction varies: Strongest in solids (hard to separate), weakest in gases (easily
compressible).
• Evidence: Solids cannot be compressed but gases can; liquids have moderate attraction.

1.3 States of Matter

1.3.1 The Solid State
• Solids: Fixed shape and fixed volume; particles tightly packed, strong forces of attraction,
very little space between particles.
• Particles can vibrate but cannot move freely (only vibrate in fixed positions).
• Examples: Iron nail, chalk piece, table, chair.

1.3.2 The Liquid State

• Liquids: Fixed volume but no fixed shape (take shape of container); particles less tightly
packed than solids, weaker forces, more space between particles.
• Particles can move short distances, hence flow and change shape.
• Examples: Water, oil, milk.

1.3.3 The Gaseous State

• Gases: No fixed shape, no fixed volume (fill entire container); particles very loosely packed,
very weak forces, large spaces between particles.
• Particles move freely in all directions (random motion), hence diffuse rapidly.
• Examples: Air, cooking gas (LPG).

1.4 Can Matter Change Its State?

1.4.1 Effect of Change of Temperature
• Matter can change from one state to another by changing temperature (heating or cooling).
• Fusion/Melting: Solid to liquid at melting point (e.g. ice to water at 0°C, wax at 56°C).
• Vaporisation/Boiling: Liquid to gas at boiling point (e.g. water to steam at 100°C).
• Freezing/Liquid to Solid: At freezing point (e.g. water to ice at 0°C).
• Condensation: Gas to liquid (e.g. steam to water).
• Sublimation: Solid directly to gas without melting (e.g. naphthalene balls, dry ice/CO₂).

1.4.2 Latent Heat

• Latent Heat of Fusion: Heat energy required to change 1 kg solid to liquid at melting point
(without temperature rise); for ice = 334 kJ/kg or 3.34 × 10⁵ J/kg.
 • Latent Heat of Vaporisation: Heat energy required to change 1 kg liquid to gas at boiling
point; for water = 2260 kJ/kg or 2.26 × 10⁶ J/kg.
• During change of state, temperature remains constant; all heat goes to overcome forces of
attraction between particles.

1.4.3 Effect of Change of Pressure

• Pressure change affects only gases significantly (liquids/solids almost incompressible).
• Increasing pressure on gas brings particles closer, reduces volume (compresses).
• Decreasing pressure allows gas to expand.

1.5 Evaporation
• Evaporation: Change of liquid surface to vapour below boiling point; a surface phenomenon.
• Factors Affecting Evaporation:
• Increase in surface area (more particles escape).
• Increase in temperature (more kinetic energy).
• Decrease in humidity (dry air absorbs more vapour).
• Increase in wind speed (removes vapour, allows more evaporation).

1.5.1 Evaporation Causes Cooling

• Evaporation is a cooling process: Fastest moving particles (high KE) escape first, leaving
slower particles (lower average KE, lower temperature).
• Examples: Sweating cools body; water in earthen pot cools; acetone evaporates fast from
hand, feels cool.

Is matter around us pure

2.1 How Do We Judge Whether Milk, Ghee, Butter, Lemon Juice, etc., Dissolve in Water or Not?
• Everyday items like milk, ghee, butter are mixtures (not pure).
• Lemon juice dissolves in water (miscible); oil does not (immiscible).
• We need to know if matter around us is pure or impure (mixture) to understand its properties
and uses.
2.2 What Is a Solution?
2.2.1 Types of Solutions
• Solution: Homogeneous mixture of two or more substances; uniform composition
throughout.
• Components of Solution:
• Solute: Substance in smaller amount that dissolves (e.g. sugar).
• Solvent: Substance in larger amount in which solute dissolves (e.g. water).
• Types Based on Amount of Solute:
• Saturated Solution: Maximum solute dissolved at given temperature; no more
dissolves.
• Unsaturated Solution: Can dissolve more solute at that temperature.
• Supersaturated Solution: More solute dissolved than saturated by adding heat or
solute slowly after saturation.

2.3 Concentration of a Solution

• Concentration: Amount of solute present per given amount of solution.
• Mass by Mass Percentage (% w/w):
• Mass of soluteMass of solution×100Mass of solutionMass of solute×100.
• Example: 20 g sugar in 80 g water → mass of solution = 100 g → 20% w/w.
• Mass by Volume Percentage (% w/v):
• Mass of soluteVolume of solution×100Volume of solutionMass of solute×100.
• Volume by Volume Percentage (% v/v): For liquid solutes in liquid solvents.

2.4 What Is a Mixture?

2.4.1 What Are the Types of Mixtures?
• Mixture: Combination of two or more pure substances where components retain their
properties and can be separated by physical methods.
• Homogeneous Mixture: Uniform composition throughout (e.g. solution like salt water).
• Heterogeneous Mixture: Non-uniform composition (components visible, separate layers
possible).
2.5 What Is the Difference between a Solution, a Suspension
and a Colloid?
2.5.1 Suspensions
• Suspension: Heterogeneous mixture where solute particles (>1000 nm) are large, visible, do
not dissolve, settle down on standing, can be filtered.
• Examples: Muddy water, chalk powder in water.

2.5.2 Colloidal Solutions (Colloids)

• Colloid: Heterogeneous mixture where solute particles (1–1000 nm) are intermediate size,
do not settle, cannot be filtered easily, scatter light.
• Properties:
• Tyndall Effect: Scattering of light beam by colloidal particles (visible path of light);
true solutions do not show, suspensions may show faintly.
• Brownian Motion: Random zig-zag motion of particles due to collision with solvent
particles.
• Examples: Milk, fog, smoke, ink, whipped cream.

2.5.3 Comparison Table (Suspension, Colloid, Solution)

Property Solution Colloid Suspension
Particle size <1 nm 1–1000 nm >1000 nm
Appearance Clear Opaque/translucent Opaque
Tyndall Effect No Yes No/Yes (faint)
Settling No No Yes
Filtration No residue No residue Residue

2.6 Separating the Components of a Mixture

2.6.1 Evaporation
• Used to separate solids soluble in water from liquids (e.g. salt from seawater).
• Solid remains as residue, liquid evaporates.

2.6.2 Centrifugation
• Spinning at high speed separates heavier insoluble solids (cream from milk, blood cells).
• Used in dairies, labs, washing machines.

2.6.3 Chromatography
• Separates coloured components based on differential movement on absorbent paper/filter.
 • Rf
Value: Distance travelled by soluteDistance travelled by solventDistance travelled by solven
tDistance travelled by solute.
• Uses: Separating inks, dyes, plant pigments.

2.6.4 Distillation
• Separates miscible liquids with different boiling points or solid from liquid.
• Liquid with lower boiling point vapourises first, condenses separately.

2.6.5 Fractional Distillation

• Separates miscible liquids with boiling point difference <25°C (e.g. different fractions of
crude oil).

2.6.6 Crystallisation
• Obtains pure crystals of soluble solids from solution (e.g. pure salt from impure).
• Solution heated to saturation, cooled slowly; pure crystals form.

2.7 Physical and Chemical Changes

• Physical Change: Change in physical properties (shape, size, state) only; no new substance
formed, reversible. Examples: Melting ice, cutting paper.
• Chemical Change: New substance formed with different properties; irreversible usually.
Examples: Burning paper, rusting iron.

2.8 What Are Pure Substances?

2.8.1 Elements
• Element: Pure substance made of only one kind of atoms; simplest form of matter, cannot be
decomposed further by chemical means.
• Symbols: H, O, C, Fe, Na, Cl etc.

2.8.2 Compounds
• Compound: Pure substance made of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed
ratio by mass; properties different from constituents.
• Examples: Water (H₂O), Common salt (NaCl).
• Separated only by chemical methods.
2.9 Difference between Mixtures and Compounds
Property Mixture Compound
Composition Variable ratio Fixed ratio by mass
Properties Retain individual properties New properties
Separation Physical methods Chemical/electrochemical
Energy change No heat/light Heat/light evolved/absorbed

3.1 Laws of Chemical Combination

Law of Conservation of Mass
• In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed.
• Total mass of reactants = total mass of products in a closed system.

Law of Constant (Definite) Proportions

• A given compound always contains the same elements combined in a fixed proportion by
mass.
• Example: Water from river or sea always has hydrogen and oxygen in mass ratio 1 : 8.

3.2 What Is an Atom?

Dalton’s Atomic Theory (Main Postulates)
• All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms.
• Atoms are indivisible in chemical reactions; they cannot be created or destroyed.
• All atoms of a given element have same mass and chemical properties.
• Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.
• Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.
• In a given compound, relative number and kinds of atoms remain constant.
Limitations (you usually write briefly)
• Atoms are not truly indivisible (they have electrons, protons, neutrons).

3.3 Symbols of Elements

• Each element is represented by a chemical symbol (generally 1–2 letters).
• First letter is always capital; second letter (if any) is small. Example: H, O, N, Na, Cl, Fe,
Cu.
• Modern symbols based on English/Latin names (e.g. Na from Natrium, K from Kalium).

3.4 Atomic Mass

• Atoms are extremely small, so absolute mass is inconvenient; relative atomic mass is used.
• Relative atomic mass: Mass of an atom compared with 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
• It is expressed in atomic mass units (u). Example: H = 1 u, C = 12 u, O = 16 u.

3.5 What Is a Molecule?

• Molecule: Smallest particle of an element or compound capable of independent existence,
showing all properties of that substance.

Molecules of Elements
• Formed by same kind of atoms chemically combined.
• Can be:
• Monoatomic (He, Ne, Ar).
• Diatomic (H₂, O₂, N₂, Cl₂).
• Polyatomic (P₄, S₈).

Molecules of Compounds
• Formed by different kinds of atoms combined in fixed ratio.
• Examples: H₂O, CO₂, NH₃.

3.6 Ions
• Ion: Charged particle formed when an atom or group of atoms gains or loses electrons.
• Cation: Positively charged ion (loss of electrons), e.g. Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Al³⁺.
• Anion: Negatively charged ion (gain of electrons), e.g. Cl⁻, O²⁻, SO₄²⁻.
 • Radical: Group of atoms that carry a charge and behave as a single ion, e.g. SO₄²⁻, NO₃⁻,
NH₄⁺.

3.7 Writing Chemical Formulae

Rules (for ionic compounds)
• Write symbols of cation and anion with their charges (“criss-cross” method).
• Total positive charge = total negative charge (compound electrically neutral).
• If more than one polyatomic ion is needed, use brackets, e.g. Ca(OH)₂, Al₂(SO₄)₃.

Examples
• Sodium chloride: Na⁺, Cl⁻ → NaCl.
• Calcium oxide: Ca²⁺, O²⁻ → CaO.
• Aluminium oxide: Al³⁺, O²⁻ → Al₂O₃.
• Ammonium sulphate: NH₄⁺, SO₄²⁻ → (NH₄)₂SO₄.

3.8 Molecular Mass and Formula Unit Mass

• Molecular mass: Sum of atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule, expressed in u.
• Example: H₂O → 2 × 1 + 16 = 18 u.
• Formula unit mass: Sum of atomic masses of all atoms in the formula unit of an ionic
compound (e.g. NaCl, CaO).

3.9 Mole Concept

• Mole: Amount of substance containing 6.022 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro’s number).
• 1 mole of atoms/molecules/ions = 6.022 × 10²³ of those particles.

Relations
• Number of moles = given mass (g) ÷ molar mass (g/mol).
• Number of particles = moles × 6.022 × 10²³.
• Molar mass (in g/mol) is numerically equal to relative atomic/molecular mass.
4.1 Charged Particles in Matter

Discovery of Electrons
• J.J. Thomson discovered electrons through cathode ray experiment (1897).
• Cathode Rays: Stream of negatively charged particles (electrons) moving from cathode (-)
to anode (+) in a discharge tube.
• Properties of Cathode Rays:
• Travel in straight lines.
• Have mass and kinetic energy.
• Carry negative charge.
• Independent of nature of cathode gas (same for all gases).
• e/m ratio for electron = 1.758820 × 10¹¹ C/kg (universal constant).

Discovery of Protons
• E. Goldstein discovered positively charged particles (protons) through anode ray experiment
(1886).
• Anode Rays (Canal Rays): Positively charged particles moving from anode (+) to cathode
(-) in a perforated cathode tube.
• Properties: Depend on nature of gas; heavier than electrons; carry positive charge.

Discovery of Neutrons
• James Chadwick discovered neutral particles (neutrons) in 1932 by bombarding beryllium
with alpha particles.

4.2 Subatomic Particles

Particle Charge Mass (approx) Location Discovered by
Electron (e⁻) -1 9.1 × 10⁻³¹ kg (1/2000 u) Outside nucleus J.J. Thomson
Proton (p⁺) +1 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷ kg (1 u) Nucleus E. Goldstein
Neutron (n⁰) 0 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷ kg (1 u) Nucleus James Chadwick

4.3 Atomic Models

Thomson's Model (Plum Pudding Model)
• Atom: Positively charged sphere with electrons embedded like plums in pudding.
• Defect: Cannot explain results of Rutherford's α-scattering experiment.
Rutherford's Model (Nuclear Model)
• Gold Foil Experiment (1911):
• Alpha particles passed through thin gold foil.
• Most passed straight, some deflected, very few bounced back.
• Observations:
• Most α-particles passed undeflected → atom mostly empty space.
• Few deflected at large angles → positive charge concentrated at center.
• Very few returned → tiny dense positive nucleus.
• Conclusions:
• Atom has a tiny dense nucleus containing protons (+ve charge).
• Electrons revolve around nucleus in empty space.
• Nucleus occupies very small volume but contains almost all mass.

Defects of Rutherford's Model

• Cannot explain stability of atom (electrons should spiral into nucleus).

4.4 Neutrons
• Discovered by Chadwick (1932).
• Mass ≈ 1 u, no charge, present in nucleus.
• Makes nucleus heavier without adding charge.

4.5 Atomic Number (Z) and Mass Number (A)

• Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons in nucleus = number of electrons in neutral atom.
• Mass Number (A): Total number of protons + neutrons in nucleus.
• Number of Neutrons (n): n = A - Z.
• Symbol: ZAXZAX (e.g. 816O816O, 1123Na1123Na).

4.6 Isotopes
• Isotopes: Atoms of same element with same Z but different A (different neutrons).
• Examples:
• Hydrogen: Protium (11H11H), Deuterium (12H12H), Tritium (13H13H).
• Carbon: 612C612C, 614C614C.
 • Chlorine: 1735Cl1735Cl, 1737Cl1737Cl.
• Isobars: Atoms of different elements with same A but different Z
(e.g. 1840Ar1840Ar, 2040Ca2040Ca).
• Isotones: Same number of neutrons (e.g. 1531P1531P, 1631S1631S).

4.7 Electronic Configuration

Bohr-Bury Schemes
• Maximum Electrons in Shells (K, L, M, N...):
• K shell (n=1): 2 electrons.
• L shell (n=2): 8 electrons.
• M shell (n=3): 18 electrons (max 32).
• N shell (n=4): 32 electrons.
• Rule 1: 2n² rule (max electrons in nth shell).
• Rule 2 (Bury): Outermost shell never exceeds 8 electrons.
• Rule 3: Valency shell (2nd last) never exceeds 18 electrons.

Examples
text
Na (11): 2, 8, 1
Mg (12): 2, 8, 2

Al (13): 2, 8, 3

Si (14): 2, 8, 4

P (15): 2, 8, 5

S (16): 2, 8, 6

Cl (17): 2, 8, 7

Ar (18): 2, 8, 8

K (19): 2, 8, 8, 1

Ca (20): 2, 8, 8, 2

5.1 What Are Living Organisms Made Up Of?

• Living organisms are made of cells (smallest structural and functional unit).
 • Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke (1665) using cork slice under microscope (called
"cells").
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek first saw living cells (bacteria, protozoa) using improved
microscope.

5.2 Cell: The Basic Unit of Life

• Cell Theory (Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow):
• All living organisms made of cells.
• Cell is basic structural and functional unit of life.
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
• Unicellular Organisms: Single cell performs all life functions (e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium,
Chlamydomonas).
• Multicellular Organisms: Many cells grouped into tissues, organs, organ systems (e.g.
human body).

5.3 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

• Prokaryotic Cells: No well-defined nucleus; nuclear material free in cytoplasm (e.g.
bacteria, blue-green algae).
• Eukaryotic Cells: Well-defined nucleus enclosed by nuclear membrane (e.g. onion cell,
cheek cell, plant/animal cells).

5.4 Size, Shape and Number of Cells

• Size: Measured in micrometres (µm); smallest cell = Mycoplasma (0.2–0.3 µm), largest =
Ostrich egg.
• Shape: Depends on function (e.g. Amoeba – irregular; nerve cell – long; RBC –
disc-shaped).
• Number: Unicellular (one cell) or multicellular (many cells).

5.5 Parts of the Cell

Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane)
• Selectively permeable thin layer surrounding cytoplasm; made of lipids + proteins.
• Controls movement of materials in/out (transport).
• Fluid Mosaic Model: Proteins float in lipid bilayer like a mosaic.
Cell Wall
• Present only in plant cells; rigid outer layer of cellulose; protects, gives shape, prevents
bursting in hypotonic solution.
• Absent in animal cells.

Nucleus
• Control centre of cell; dense spherical body surrounded by nuclear membrane with pores.
• Contains chromatin (DNA + proteins → chromosomes during division).
• Nucleolus: Dense spherical structure inside nucleus (makes ribosomes).
• Nuclear Membrane: Double layer with pores for material exchange.

Cytoplasm
• Jelly-like fluid between nucleus and plasma membrane; contains organelles.

5.6 Cell Organelles

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Network of membrane tubes.
• Rough ER (RER): Studded with ribosomes; transports proteins.
• Smooth ER (SER): No ribosomes; synthesises lipids, detoxifies.

Golgi Apparatus
• Stacks of membrane sacs (cisternae); packages and dispatches materials (lipids, proteins).
• Forms lysosomes; secretes enzymes.

Lysosomes
• Membrane sacs with digestive enzymes ("suicide bags"); digest worn-out organelles, foreign
matter.

Mitochondria
• Powerhouse of cell; double membrane; inner folds (cristae) increase surface area.
• Site of cellular respiration; produces ATP (energy currency).

Plastids (Plant cells only)

• Chloroplasts: Green (chlorophyll); site of photosynthesis.
• Chromoplasts: Coloured (carotenoids, xanthophylls); e.g. in petals, fruits.
• Leucoplasts: Colourless; store starch, oil, proteins.
Vacuoles
• Storage sacs; large in plant cells (maintain turgidity), small in animal cells.

Ribosomes
• Tiny granular structures (RNA + proteins); site of protein synthesis; on RER or free in
cytoplasm.

Centrosome (Animal cells)

• Contains centrioles (two rods); helps in cell division (spindle formation).

5.7 Comparison: Plant Cell vs Animal Cell

Feature Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell Wall Present (cellulose) Absent
Shape Fixed (rectangular) Round/irregular
Plastids Present Absent
Vacuole Large central Small/multiple
Centrioles Absent Present
Lysosomes Rare Common

5.8 Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

Feature Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Nucleus Absent (nucleoid) Present
Membrane-bound Organelles Absent Present
Size 1–10 µm 10–100 µm
Examples Bacteria Plants, animals

5.9 Cell Division

• Cell divides to reproduce (unicellular) or replace worn cells (multicellular).
• Types: Mitosis (growth, repair), Meiosis (gametes).

6.1 Are Plants and Animals Made of Same Types of Tissues?

• Tissue: Group of cells with similar origin, structure, and function that work together.
• Plants have fewer tissue types than animals (plants do not move, less diversity).
• Utility: Division of labour, specialisation for specific functions, growth, repair.
6.2 Plant Tissues
Meristematic Tissue (Dividing Tissue)
• Location: Growing regions (tips of roots/stems, between mature tissues).
• Characteristics:
• Small, thin-walled cells with dense cytoplasm, large nucleus, no vacuoles.
• Divide continuously, produce new cells.
• Types:
• Apical Meristem: Tips of roots/stems → increase length (primary growth).
• Lateral Meristem: Sides of stems/roots → increase girth (secondary growth).
• Intercalary Meristem: Base of leaves/grasses → elongation.

Permanent Tissue (Non-dividing)

• Mature cells that lost ability to divide; specialised for specific functions.

Simple Permanent Tissues

Parenchyma
• Most abundant; living, thin-walled, large vacuoles.
• Functions: Storage, photosynthesis (chlorenchyma), buoyancy (aerenchyma).
Collenchyma
• Living, thick corners (cellulose + pectin).
• Functions: Mechanical support to growing parts (under epidermis of stems, petioles).
Sclerenchyma
• Dead, thick lignified walls, narrow lumen.
• Functions: Mechanical strength (fibres long, narrow; sclereids short, thick). Examples: Jute,
flax fibres; nut shells.

Complex Permanent Tissues

Xylem (Conducting + Mechanical)
• Components: Tracheids, vessels (dead), xylem parenchyma (living), xylem fibres.
• Functions: Water + minerals transport upwards.
Phloem (Conducting)
• Components: Sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma, phloem fibres (all living).
• Functions: Food transport (bidirectional).
6.3 Animal Tissues
Epithelial Tissue (Covering Tissue)
• Covers body surfaces, cavities, organs; forms glands.
• Characteristics: Tightly packed cells, free surface, basement membrane.

Types
Simple Epithelium
• Squamous: Thin, flat (alveoli, blood vessels); diffusion, filtration.
• Cuboidal: Cube-shaped (kidney tubules, glands); secretion, absorption.
• Columnar: Tall, pillar-like (intestine lining); absorption, secretion. Ciliated in respiratory
tract.
• Columnar with Microvilli: Brush border, increases absorption (intestine).
Compound Epithelium
• Multi-layered; protection (skin, cornea).
Glandular Epithelium
• Endocrine: Ductless glands (hormones into blood).
• Exocrine: Duct glands (salivary, sweat).

Connective Tissue
• Most abundant; binds/supports other tissues; matrix separates cells.

Types
Areolar: Loose matrix with fibres, fibroblasts, mast cells; fills spaces (under skin).
Adipose: Fat storage (below skin, around organs); insulates, cushions.
Skeletal
• Cartilage: Flexible support (nose, ear, trachea); matrix with collagen/chondroitin.
• Bone: Hard matrix (calcium salts + collagen); supports, protects, blood production.
• Tendon: White, inelastic; connects muscle to bone.
• Ligament: Yellow, elastic; connects bone to bone.
Fluid
• Blood: Fluid matrix (plasma); RBC (O₂), WBC (immunity), platelets (clotting).
• Lymph: Plasma + WBC (no RBC); immunity.
Muscular Tissue
• Functions: Movement by contraction/relaxation.

Types
Skeletal (Striated, Voluntary): Cylindrical, multinucleate; attached to bones.
Smooth (Non-striated, Involuntary): Spindle-shaped, uninucleate; walls of organs (intestine,
blood vessels).
Cardiac: Branched, uninucleate, striated; walls of heart; involuntary.

Nervous Tissue
• Functions: Transmit electrical impulses (messages).
• Neurons:
• Structure: Cell body, dendrites (receive), axon (transmit).
• Location: Brain, spinal cord, nerves.

6.4 Plant Growth Regulators (brief mention)

• Auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, ethylene.

1. motion
7.1 Describing motion
• Motion: Change in position of an object with time, relative to a fixed reference point
(surroundings).
• Rest: No change in position of an object with time, relative to that reference point.
• Path of motion: The route followed by a moving object; may be straight, curved or zig-zag.

7.1.1 Motion along a straight line

• Rectilinear motion: Motion of an object along a straight line only.
• Distance:
 • Total length of the actual path travelled.
• Scalar quantity (only magnitude, no direction).
• Always positive or zero.
• Displacement:
• Shortest straight-line distance from initial to final position in a given direction.
• Vector quantity (magnitude + direction).
• Can be positive, negative or zero.
• Relation: For any motion, displacement ≤ distance. They are equal only if motion is along a
straight line in one direction, without coming back.

7.1.2 Uniform and non-uniform motion

• Uniform motion in a straight line: Equal distances in equal intervals of time, however small
the intervals.
• Non-uniform motion: Unequal distances in equal intervals of time.
• Examples:
• Uniform: Car on a straight empty highway with constant speed.
• Non-uniform: Bus in city traffic, running race with changes in speed.

7.2 Measuring the rate of motion

• Rate of motion tells “how fast or slow” an object is moving.

7.2.1 Speed
• Speed = distance travelled ÷ time taken.
• SI unit: m/s; other units: km/h, cm/s etc.
• Average speed = total distance ÷ total time taken.
• Speed is a scalar quantity; it has only magnitude, no direction.

7.2.2 Velocity
• Velocity = displacement ÷ time taken in a specified direction.
• SI unit: m/s (same as speed).
• Velocity is a vector quantity (magnitude + direction).
• Average velocity = total displacement ÷ total time.
• If direction changes, velocity changes even if speed remains constant.
7.2.3 Comparison of speed and velocity
• Speed uses distance; velocity uses displacement.
• Speed has no direction (scalar); velocity has direction (vector).
• Speed is always positive; velocity can be positive, negative or zero depending on direction
chosen.

7.3 Rate of change of velocity

7.3.1 Acceleration
• Acceleration = rate of change of velocity with time.
• Formula: a=(v−u)/ta=(v−u)/t where uu = initial velocity, vv = final velocity, tt = time.
• SI unit: m/s².
• Acceleration is a vector quantity (direction same as change in velocity).

7.3.2 Types of acceleration

• Uniform acceleration: Equal change in velocity in equal intervals of time (e.g. object in free
fall).
• Non-uniform acceleration: Unequal change in velocity in equal intervals of time.
• Negative acceleration / retardation / deceleration: Acceleration opposite to direction of
motion; speed decreases with time (e.g. braking car).

7.4 Graphical representation of motion

7.4.1 Distance–time graphs

• Axes: Time on x-axis, distance on y-axis.
• Object at rest: Horizontal straight line (distance constant, time increases).
• Uniform motion: Straight line with constant slope; greater slope = higher speed.
• Non-uniform motion: Curve; slope (and hence speed) changes from point to point.

7.4.2 Velocity–time graphs

• Axes: Time on x-axis, velocity on y-axis.
• Constant velocity: Horizontal straight line; displacement = area under the line.
 • Uniform acceleration from rest: Straight line starting at origin; slope = acceleration; area
under line = displacement.
• Uniform retardation: Straight line sloping downwards; velocity decreases linearly with
time.

7.4.3 Use of graphs

• Slope of distance–time graph = speed.
• Slope of velocity–time graph = acceleration.
• Area under velocity–time graph between two times = displacement in that time interval.

7.5 Equations of motion for uniform acceleration

For motion in a straight line with uniform acceleration aa, initial velocity uu, final velocity vv,
time tt and displacement ss:
• First equation (velocity–time relation):
• v=u+atv=u+at.
• Shows how velocity changes with time under constant acceleration.
• Second equation (position–time relation):
• s=ut+12at2s=ut+21at2.
• Gives displacement in time tt under uniform acceleration.
• Third equation (velocity–displacement relation):
• v2=u2+2asv2=u2+2as.
• Relates velocities and displacement without time.
(Each of these is derived in the book using the velocity–time graph and areas under the graph.)

7.6 Uniform circular motion

• Circular motion: Motion of an object along a circular path.
• Uniform circular motion: Motion along a circular path with constant speed.
• Even though speed is constant, velocity changes continuously because direction changes;
hence the motion is accelerated.
• For one complete revolution in a circle of radius rr:
• Distance travelled = circumference = 2πr2πr.
• Displacement after one full round = 0 (initial and final positions same).
 • If time taken for one revolution is TT, then speed in uniform circular motion = 2πr/T2πr/T.

..

9.1 Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

• Force: Push or pull acting on an object; changes object's state of motion or shape.
• Balanced Forces: Equal magnitude, opposite direction; no change in motion (net force = 0).
• Unbalanced Forces: Unequal forces; cause change in speed or direction of motion.
• Example: Book on table (balanced), footballer kicking ball (unbalanced).

9.2 First Law of Motion (Galileo's/Galileo's Law of Inertia)

• Inertia: Property of object to resist change in its state of motion (rest or uniform motion).
• Newton's First Law: Object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in straight line
unless acted upon by unbalanced external force.
• Examples:
• Dust falls off carpet when beaten suddenly (inertia of rest).
• Passenger moves forward when bus stops suddenly (inertia of motion).
• Coin falls into glass tumbler when card flicked (inertia of rest).

9.3 Inertia of Different Bodies

• Inertia of Rest: Object resists starting to move.
• Heavy bus harder to start than light bicycle.
• Inertia of Motion: Object resists stopping.
• Train takes long distance to stop after brakes applied.

9.4 Momentum
• Momentum (p): Mass (m) × velocity (v); p = mv. Vector quantity.
• SI Unit: kg m/s.
• Heavier or faster objects have more momentum (harder to stop).
9.5 Second Law of Motion
• Newton's Second Law: Rate of change of momentum ∝ applied force; direction same as
force.
• Mathematical Form: F = ma (force = mass × acceleration).
• SI Unit of Force: Newton (N) = kg m/s².
• 1 N: Force needed to give 1 kg mass acceleration of 1 m/s².

9.6 Third Law of Motion

• Newton's Third Law: For every action, equal and opposite reaction acts on different
bodies.
• Examples:
• Swimming (push water back → move forward).
• Gun recoil when bullet fired.
• Walking (push ground back → move forward).

9.7 Conservation of Momentum

• Momentum Conserved: In isolated system, total momentum before = total momentum after
collision.
• Proof: From 2nd and 3rd laws (F₁₂ = -F₂₁, so Δp₁ = -Δp₂, total p constant).
• Example: Two balls colliding; total momentum unchanged.

9.8 Rate of Change of Momentum

Situation Mass Velocity Change Force
Constant mass Fixed Large Δv Large F
Constant acceleration Large m Fixed Δv Large F
Both change Large m + large Δv Large Very large F

Key Points for Exam

• Inertia increases with mass.
• F = ma → force ∝ acceleration, force ∝ mass.
• Momentum = mv (vector).
• Action-Reaction act on different bodies.
• Conservation only when no external force acts.
10.1 Gravitation (Universal Phenomenon)
• Gravitation: Force of attraction between any two objects with mass. [web:previous
knowledge]
• Universal Law of Gravitation (Newton): Every object attracts every other object with
force ∝ product of masses, inversely ∝ square of distance between them.
Formula: F=Gm1m2r2F=Gr2m1m2
G = Gravitational constant = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ Nm²/kg². [web:previous knowledge]

10.2 Free Fall

• Free Fall: When only gravitational force acts (no air resistance); all objects fall with same
acceleration g = 9.8 m/s². [web:previous knowledge]
• Mass: Amount of matter (constant everywhere).
• Weight (W): Gravitational force on mass; W = mg. [web:previous knowledge]
• Weight varies with location (g changes); mass does not.

10.3 Mass
• Inertia of object; measured in kg.
• Same everywhere in universe. [web:previous knowledge]

10.4 Weight
• Force due to gravity; vector quantity.
• On Moon: gₘₒₒₙ = gₑₐᵣₜₕ/6 ≈ 1.6 m/s² → weight 1/6th.
• On Mars: gₘₐᵣₛ ≈ 3.7 m/s² → weight ≈ 3/8th of Earth. [web:previous knowledge]

10.5 Thrust and Pressure

• Thrust: Force perpendicular to surface acting on it.
• Pressure (P): Thrust ÷ area; P = F/A.
• SI Unit: Pascal (Pa) = N/m². [web:previous knowledge]
• Sharp knife cuts easily (small area → high pressure).

10.6 Pressure Exerted in Liquids

• Liquids exert pressure equally in all directions.
 • Pressure at depth h: P = ρgh (ρ = density of liquid).
• Increases with depth, independent of container shape. [web:previous knowledge]

10.7 Buoyancy (Upthrust)

• Buoyant Force: Upward force exerted by liquid/gas on object immersed.
• Why objects float/sink: Depends on buoyant force vs weight.
• Archimedes' Principle: Buoyant force = weight of liquid displaced. [web:previous
knowledge]

10.8 Why Objects Float or Sink When Placed on Surface of

Water?
Condition Buoyant Force Weight Result
BF > Weight Floats
BF = Weight Just floats (neutral buoyancy)
BF < Weight Sinks [web:previous knowledge]
Density Comparison:
• Object density < liquid density → Floats.
• Object density > liquid density → Sinks. [web:previous knowledge]

Key Formulas Summary

1. Gravitational Force: F=Gm1m2r2F=Gr2m1m2
2. Weight: W = mg
3. Pressure: P = F/A
4. Liquid Pressure: P = ρgh
5. Buoyant Force: = Weight of displaced liquid [web:previous knowledge]

Exam Points
• g decreases with height above Earth, decreases with distance from Earth.
• Weight zero in free space (no gravity).
• Atmospheric pressure exists due to weight of air column.
• Lactometer works on density principle. [web:previous knowledge]
11.1 Work
• Work: Done when force causes displacement in direction of force. [conversation context]
• Formula: W = F × s × cosθ (θ = angle between force and displacement).
• SI Unit: Joule (J) = N × m.
• 1 J: 1 N force displaces object by 1 m in same direction. [conversation context]
Conditions for No Work:
• No force (F = 0).
• No displacement (s = 0).
• Force ⊥ displacement (cos90° = 0). [conversation context]

11.2 Energy
• Energy: Capacity to do work.
• SI Unit: Joule (J).
• Forms: Kinetic Energy (KE), Potential Energy (PE), Chemical, Electrical, Heat, Light,
Sound. [conversation context]

Kinetic Energy (KE)

• Energy possessed by moving body.
• Formula: KE = ½ mv² (m = mass, v = velocity).
• Depends on: Mass & square of velocity. [conversation context]

Potential Energy (PE)

• Energy possessed by body due to position/configuration.
• Gravitational PE: PE = mgh (h = height above ground).
• Depends on: Mass, gravity, height. [conversation context]

11.3 Law of Conservation of Energy

• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; only transformed from one form to another.
• Total Energy: KE + PE = Constant (neglecting friction). [conversation context]
• Example: Freely falling object → PE decreases, KE increases (total constant).

11.4 Rate of Doing Work (Power)

• Power (P): Work done ÷ time taken; P = W/t.
 • SI Unit: Watt (W) = J/s.
• 1 Watt: 1 J work done in 1 s.
• Commercial Unit: 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ J (1 unit electricity). [conversation context]
Units Conversion:
text
1 kW = 1000 W
1 kWh = 1000 W × 3600 s = 3.6 × 10⁶ J

1 h.p. = 746 W

11.5 Commercial Unit of Energy

Unit Equivalent
1 kWh 3.6 × 10⁶ J
1 kilowatt-hour Energy consumed by 1000 W appliance in 1 hour
1 Board of Trade Unit (B.O.T.U.) 1 kWh

Key Exam Points

Work-Energy Theorem:
Work done = Change in kinetic energy.
W = ΔKE = KE(final) - KE(initial).
Examples:
• Positive Work: Lifting book (F & displacement same direction).
• Negative Work: Friction opposing motion.
• Zero Work: Walking (F ⊥ displacement). [conversation context]
Energy Transformation Examples:
• Hydroelectric → Electrical → Light/Heat (bulb).
• Chemical (food) → Mechanical (muscles).
• Electrical → Mechanical (electric motor).

12.1 Production of Sound

• Sound: Produced by vibrating objects (e.g. vocal cords, guitar string, tabla).
• Vibration: To and fro motion about mean position.
• Medium: Sound needs material medium (solid/liquid/gas); cannot travel in vacuum.
12.2 Propagation of Sound
• Sound travels as longitudinal waves (particles vibrate parallel to wave direction).
• Speed in Different Media:
• Solids > Liquids > Gases (faster in denser medium).
• Air: 340 m/s at room temperature.
• Steel: 5000 m/s.
• Water: 1500 m/s.

12.3 Sound Wave Characteristics

Amplitude (A)
• Maximum displacement from mean position.
• Loudness ∝ Amplitude².

Frequency (f)
• Number of vibrations per second (Hz).
• Pitch ∝ Frequency.
• Audible Range: 20 Hz - 20 kHz (human ear).
• Infrasonic: <20 Hz (elephants, earthquakes).
• Ultrasonic: >20 kHz (bats, dolphins).

Time Period (T)

• Time for one complete vibration; T = 1/f.

Wavelength (λ)
• Distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions.
• Wave Velocity: v = fλ.

12.4 Reflection of Sound (Echo)

• Echo: Reflection of sound from obstacle.
• Minimum Distance: 17 m (time gap ≥ 0.1 s).
• Uses: SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging).
12.5 Sonar
• Principle: Echo method.
• Formula: Distance = Speed × Time/2.
• Uses: Ocean depth measurement, submarine detection, fish location.

12.6 Human Ear (Structure & Function)

Parts
1. Outer Ear: Pinna → collects sound → ear canal.
2. Middle Ear: Eardrum → ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup) → amplify vibrations.
3. Inner Ear: Cochlea (spiral, fluid-filled) → auditory nerve → brain.

Hearing Range
• Normal: 20 Hz - 20 kHz.
• Hearing Loss: Prolonged loud sound exposure.

12.7 Range of Hearing in Humans

Type Frequency Range
Infrasonic <20 Hz
Audible 20 Hz - 20 kHz
Ultrasonic >20 kHz

12.8 Noise Pollution & Control

Sources:
• Machines, vehicles, loudspeakers, firecrackers.
Effects:
• Hearing loss, hypertension, sleep disturbance.
Control:
• Use earplugs, reduce volume, plant trees, regular machine maintenance.

Key Formulas Summary

1. Wave Velocity: v = fλ
2. Sonar Distance: 2d = vt → d = vt/2
3. Loudness: ∝ A²
 4. Pitch: ∝ f

Exam Points
• Quality/Timbre: Distinguishes different sounds (same pitch/loudness).
• Musical Sound: Regular vibrations.
• Noise: Irregular vibrations.
• Female voice: Higher pitch (higher f).
• SONAR numericals: Most common in exams.
Class 9 Science Chapter 14 "Improvement in Food Resources" focuses on crop production, animal
husbandry, and sustainable farming practices. Below are point-wise notes following NCERT
sequence.

14.1 Improvement in Crop Yields

Crop Production Management (Essential Practices)
1. Crop Variety Improvement
• Hybridisation: Superior traits from two varieties (high yield + disease resistance).
• GM Crops: Bt cotton, Bt brinjal (insect resistant).
• Biopatent: New variety protected legally.
2. Crop Production Management
• Nutrient Management:
• Macronutrients: N, P, K (manures + fertilisers).
• Micronutrients: Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu (deficiency diseases).
• Manures: Organic (cow dung, compost); improve soil texture.
• Fertilisers: Inorganic (NPK); quick action but can cause pollution.
3. Irrigation
• Traditional: Moats, chain pump, dhekli, rahat.
• Modern: Drip, sprinkler (water efficient).

14.2 Crop Protection Management

Crop Protection
• Storage Losses: 10% Kharif, 6% Rabi crops.
• Prevention:
 • Storage: Neem leaves, dried neem, chemical treatments.
• Pests/Diseases: Bioagents (Trichoderma), chemicals.

14.3 Animal Husbandry

Cattle Farming
• Indigenous: Sahiwal, Red Sindhi (milk 4-5 L/day).
• Exotic: Jersey, Holstein-Friesian (20-25 L/day).
• Crossbreeds: Karan Swiss, Tharparkar.
Poultry Farming
• Layers: Egg production (250-300 eggs/hen/year).
• Broilers: Meat production (2-2.5 kg in 6-8 weeks).
• Varieties: Aseel, Rhode Island Red, Plymouth Rock.
Fish Farming
• Freshwater: Rohu, Catla, Mrigal (surface/middle/bottom feeders).
• Marine: Bombay duck, Pomfret.
• Culture Fishery: Extensive, intensive, composite.
Bee-keeping
• Indian Bee: Apis cerana indica (less honey).
• Italian Bee: Apis mellifera (more honey).
• Types: Inter-cropping honey plants.

14.4 Important Exam Tables

Cropping Patterns
Season Crops Sowing Harvesting
Kharif Rice, Maize, Jowar June-July Sept-Oct
Rabi Wheat, Gram, Mustard Sept-Oct March-April
Zaid Cucumber, Watermelon March-April June
Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
Nutrient Deficiency Symptom
Nitrogen Yellow leaves
Phosphorus Poor root growth
Potassium Weak stems
14.5 Key Concepts
Crop Rotation: Different crops in sequence → soil fertility maintained.
Inter-cropping: 2+ crops simultaneously → better resource use.
Mixed Cropping: 2+ crops mixed → risk reduction.
Mixed Farming: Crops + livestock together.
Organic Farming: No chemicals; biofertilisers, biopesticides.

Key Exam Points

• Green Revolution: High-yielding varieties (wheat, rice).
• White Revolution: Dairy development.
• Blue Revolution: Fisheries.
• Biofertilisers: Rhizobium (legumes), Azospirillum, Mycorrhiza.
• Biogas Plant: Cattle dung → fuel + manure.