Sampling
Element: A member of the population is an
element.
Sample: A representative part of population is
known as sample.
Sampling Frame: The list of sampling units
from which a sample is taken is called the
sampling frame.
Population/Universe: The aggregate of all the
units pertaining to a study is called the
population or the universe.
Sampling: The process of drawing a sample
from a larger population is called sampling.
Sampling
Types of sampling:
Probability Sampling: A probability
sampling method is any method of
sampling that utilizes some form of
random selection.
Non Probability sampling: Non-
probability sampling is a sampling
technique where the samples are gathered
in a process that does not give all the
individuals in the population equal
chances of being selected.
Types of Probability Sampling:
• Simple Random Sampling
• Stratified Random Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
• Cluster Sampling
• Area Sampling
• Multistage Sampling
• Multiphase Sampling
• Probability Proportional sampling
Types of Non- Probability
Sampling:
• Convenient Sampling
• Purposive Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Snowballing Sampling
Methods of sampling
• Lottery method
• Random number
Sampling
Types of Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is
a type of probability
sampling where each
sampling location is equally
likely to be selected, and the
selection of one location
does not influence which is
selected next.
• Kathmandu valley N=50000, n=5000
• Kirtipur (Nk=15000) (15000/50000) x 5000 = 1500
• Bhaktapur (Nb=20000) (20000/50000) x 5000 =
2000
• Lalitpur (Nl=10000) (10000/50000) x 5000 = 1000
• Kantipur (Nka=5000) (5000/50000) x 5000 = 500
Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
In stratified random sampling, the strata are formed
Types of Probability Sampling
based on their members sharing a specific attribute or
characteristic. A simple random sample from each
stratum is taken, in a number proportional to the
stratum’s size when compared to the population.
• Proportionate stratified random sampling
• Dis-proportionate stratified random sampling
• N = 5672; n= 550
• Humanities and S.S = 2573; n = 249.49 ~250
2573/5672= _____ x 550 =
• Science =1187; n =115.15~ 115
• Management = 1564; n=151.15 ~151
• Education= 348; n= 33.7 ~ 34
Sampling
Systematic Sampling (equal interval. Pseudo-random
sampling)
Types of Probability Sampling
In systematic random sampling, the researcher first
randomly picks the first item or subject from the
population. Then, the researcher will select each n'th
subject from the list.
• N = 104; n=25
• 104/25 = 4.01~ 4
• 23, 27, 31, 35, 39, 43, 47, 51, 55, 59, 63, 67,
71, 75, 79, 81, 85, 89, 91, 95, 99, 103,
• 104, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
Sampling
Cluster Sampling
A random sampling plan in which the population is
Types of Probability Sampling
subdivided into groups called clusters so that there is
small variability within clusters and large variability
between clusters.
Sampling
Strengths of Probability Sampling
Strengths of Probability Sampling:
The principle advantage of
probability sampling is fairness, as in
contests where names are selected
from a box full of entry forms.
A selector will reach into the box,
without looking, and pluck out the
winner's name. This sort of
selection process guarantees that
every entrant has an equal chance at
winning a prize.
Sampling
Weakness of Probability Sampling
Limitations of Probability Sampling:
The disadvantage of probability
sampling is the possibility of flaws to
the randomness model.
Sampling information from a large
population takes too much time and
patience.
costly
Sampling
Types of NonProbability Sampling
Convenience Sampling (accidental sampling)
Random hit and miss fashion
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling
technique where subjects are selected because of their
convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher.
Sampling
Types of NonProbability Sampling
Purposive Sampling
A purposive sample, also commonly called a judgmental
sample, is one that is selected based on the knowledge of
a population and the purpose of the study. The subjects
are selected because of some characteristic.
Sampling
Types of NonProbability Sampling
Quota Sampling
A quota sample a type of non-probability sample in
which the researcher selects people according to some
fixed quota.
Sampling
Types of NonProbability Sampling
Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling
technique that is used by researchers to identify
potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to
locate. After observing the initial subject, the
researcher asks for assistance from the subject to help
identify people with a similar trait of interest.
Sampling
Strengths: NonProbability Sampling
Strengths of Non-Probability Sampling:
Non-Probability sampling is relatively less
costly and more convenient.
It is useful for smaller populations for which
no frames are readily available.
Sampling
Weakness: NonProbability Sampling
Weakness of Non-Probability Sampling:
Non probability sampling is more biased
method, because the individuals chosen are
not at random.
They also might not represent what another
population thinks.
biased
Determining the sample size
• In case of quantitative research, the larger the
sample size, the better the estimates.
• In qualitative research, the purpose is not
generalization, rather understanding,
exploring and describing a situation, or
process in depth thus, the issue of sample size
is less important.
•
• In order to determine the sampling size
needed when sampling for a characteristic or
value, the following information is needed.
• An estimate of the variance in the population.
• The necessary or desired precision.
• The acceptable error or permissible tolerance
of variation in the sample statistic.
• Tull and Albaum (1973) suggest the following
formula for estimating the sample size:
• n = (σ2z2)/T2 Also, n= z2(pq)/ T2
T= acceptable tolerance of variation
Sampling Error
• Sampling error refers to differences between
the sample and the population that exist only
because of the observations that happened to
be selected for the sample
• Increasing the sample size will reduce this
type of error
• Types of Sampling Error: Sample Errors and
Non Sample Errors
Error
Sample size
Sample Errors
• Error caused by the act of taking a sample
• They cause sample results to be different from
the results of census
• Differences between the sample and the
population that exist only because of the
observations that happened to be selected for
the sample
• Statistical Errors are sample error
• We have no control over
Sampling Biases
• The average of the estimates of a population
parameter derived from an infinite number of
samples is called the expected value of the
estimator.
• The difference between this value and 'true
value' of the parameter is the bias.
• Bias may arise (1) if the sampling is done by a
non random method, (2) if the sampling frame
is incomplete or inaccurate and (3) if some
sections of the population are not
available/refuse to cooperate.
• Any of these factors will cause non-
compensating errors, which cannot be
reduced by an increase in sample size.
• The only sure way of avoiding bias arising
through the sampling method is to use a
random method.
• Randomness is an essential part of the
protection against selection bias.
Non Sample Errors
• Non Response Error: A non-response error occurs
when units selected as part of the sampling
procedure do not respond in whole or in part
• Response Error: A response or data error is any
systematic bias that occurs during data
collection, analysis or interpretation
o Respondent error (e.g., lying, forgetting, etc.)
o Interviewer bias
o Recording errors
o Poorly designed questionnaires
o Measurement error
Respondent error
• respondent gives an incorrect answer, e.g. due
to prestige or competence implications, or due
to sensitivity or social undesirability of question
• lack of motivation to give an accurate answer
• respondent misunderstands the requirements
• “lazy” respondent gives an “average” answer
• question requires memory/recall
• proxy respondents are used, i.e. taking answers
from
• someone other than the respondent
Interviewer bias
• Different interviewers administer a survey in
different ways
• Differences occur in reactions of respondents to
different interviewers, e.g. to interviewers of
their own sex or own ethnic group
• Inadequate training of interviewers
• Inadequate attention to the selection of
interviewers
• There is too high a workload for the interviewer
Measurement Error
• The question is unclear, ambiguous or difficult
to answer
• The list of possible answers suggested in the
recording instrument is incomplete
• Requested information assumes a framework
unfamiliar to the respondent
• The definitions used by the survey are
different from those used by the respondent
(e.g. how many part-time employees do you
have?)
Total Error
• In sampling theory, a popular model combines
sampling and non-sampling errors and biases into
the Total Error. This total error is the square root
of the sums of squares of variable errors and
squares of bias. It is often called the root means
square error (RMSE).
• Total = √(VE2 + Bias2)
• The variable errors are caused only by sampling
errors, and VE equals the standard error of
sampling. Bias is mostly caused by measurement
biases (i.e., non-sampling errors).
Key Points on Errors
• Non-sampling errors are inevitable in production of
statistical information. Important that:-
• At planning stage, all potential non-sampling errors
are listed and steps taken to minimize them are
considered.
• If data are collected from other sources, question
procedures adopted for data collection, and data
verification at each step of the data chain.
• Critically view the data collected and attempt to
resolve queries immediately they arise.
• Document sources of non-sampling errors so that
results presented can be interpreted meaningfully.
Minimizing non-sampling error
• Lipstein (1975) offers some broad guidelines for
minimizing non sampling errors in surveys:
• Keep the sample survey as easy to execute as
possible.
• Use the smallest sample consistent with study
objectives.
• Restrict the questionnaire to data essential to the
main issue.
• Pre-test the questionnaire. Regularly undergo the
interview yourself to determine your ability to
answer and find how much fatigue is involved in
answering the questionnaire.
• Make an effort to minimize participants’ fatigue.
• Whenever possible, for future guidance, rotate
key questions to discover when respondent
fatigue begins.
• Establish procedures for keeping both respondent
and interviewer involved in the study.
• Don’t ask respondents questions they really
cannot answer.
• Don’t ask the interviewer to do the impossible.
Such requests encourage sloppy work and
cheating.