Architecture

comprehensive
course
Engr. Sheanne Marie Iglesia, RCE, RMP
 Structural design
01 surveying
04 Theory of
structures

02 Statics of rigid
bodies 05 Steel and timber
design

03 Strength of
materials 06 General
application
01
surveying
What is
SURVEYING?
One of the oldest arts practiced by man is
surveying. From the earliest times it has
always been necessary to mark
boundaries and divide tracts of land.

It is the act of measuring and mapping the

physical, legal, and environmental
characteristics of a site. It acts as the
critical link between design concepts and
real-world construction.
 surveying

Design,
Pre-design and site Legal and
construction, and
analysis compliance
post-construction
For mapping the terrain A survey defines the For floor plans, modeling,
and elevation, crucial for exact, legal limits of a translation, and future
architects to design property. renovations.
structures.
Plane surveying
vs
geodetic
surveying
 Distance measurements

horizontal vertical
The accurate determination of the Leveling is the process of
distance between two points on any measuring vertical
surface is one of the basic operations of distances to measure
plane surveying. Such linear elevation.
measurements are understood to mean
the horizontal distance.
 Bearing and azimuth
bearing
The direction of a line may be described
by its bearing. It is an acute horizontal
angle between the reference meridian
and the line.
 Bearing and azimuth
azimuth
Another common method used in
designating the direction og a line. The
azimuth of a line is its direction as given
by the angle between the meridian and
the line measured in a clockwise
direction from either north or south.
AREA
COMPUTATION
 Area computation
Double
meridian
By triangles distance

By coordinates Double
parallel
distance
 02
Statics of rigid
bodies
 Basic concepts of statics

Rigid body
Forces and force
systems
statics
equilibrium
 What is a
statics
rigid body? Statics is the branch of
It is an idealization of a solid engineering mechanics that
object that does not deform, studies the forces and
bend, or change shape under torques acting on physical
applied forces. systems in equilibrium.
 equilibrium
Equilibrium in statics refers to a state where a rigid body or system is at rest (static) and
remains in that state because all external forces and moments (torques) acting upon it
are balanced.

Translational
equilibrium
rotational
equilibrium
EQUILIBRIUM OF
RIGID BODIES
Equilibrium exists when the vector
sum of all external forces and all
moments of any point are both zero.
 equilibrium
Static equilibrium conditions
For two-dimensional For three-dimensional
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ෍ 𝑀𝑥 = 0

෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ෍ 𝑀𝑦 = 0

෍𝑀 = 0 ෍ 𝐹𝑧 = 0 ෍ 𝑀𝑧 = 0
 Forces and force systems
A force is a vector quantity that has magnitude, direction, line of action, and
point of application.
In Statics, a force can be as simple as a push or pull that can cause a body to
move, change direction, rotate, or deform.
Forces and force systems
 Types of force systems
Coplanar Forces Concurrent Forces Non-concurrent Forces

Parallel Forces 3D Forces

Forces and force systems
 resultant
In statics, the resultant is the single equivalent force (and sometimes a couple) that
produces the same translation and rotation effect on a rigid body as an entire system
of individual forces.

Rectangular Component Method Parallelogram/Triangle Rule

Resolving forces into x and y Used to add two vectors at a

components and summing them. time, often employing
trigonometry.
 Support reactions
roller
 Support reactions
Hinge/pin
 Support reactions
Hinge/pin
 Support reactions
Hinge/pin
 Support reactions
Fixed
loads
 Structural analysis
trusses Frames and
Method of Joints
Method of Sections
machines
Zero-force Members
 03
STRENGTH OF
MATERIALS
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 STRESS STRAIN
𝑷 𝑽 ∆𝑳
𝝈= 𝝉= 𝜺=
𝑨 𝑨 𝑳
Normal Stress Shear Stress
Normal Stress occurs Shear Stress occurs Strain is the
when the force acts when the force acts deformation per unit
perpendicular or parallel to the surface. original dimension of a
normal to the surface material.
of the material.
Tensile, Compressive
Tensile, Compressive
 Hooke’s law
Stress and Strain are related by
Hooke’s Law (within elastic limit).

𝝈 = 𝑬𝜺 E is the Modulus of Elasticity

Thet relationship is the

foundation of Strength of
Materials and later in
Theory of Structure.
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Key Regions:
▪ Proportional Limit
▪ Elastic Limit
▪ Yield Point
▪ Ultimate Stress
▪ Rupture Strength/Fracture
Point
 Elastic Plastic
behavior behavior
SAFE DESIGN REGION FAILURE AND DUCTITLITY

▪ Deformation is temporary ▪ Deformation is permanent

▪ Material turns to original shape ▪ Material does not return to
▪ No permanent damage original shape
▪ Hooke’s Law applies ▪ Occurs after yield point
 AXIAL DEFORMATION
𝑷𝑳
𝜹=
𝑨𝑬

Thermal stress
𝜹 = 𝜶𝑳∆𝑻

Torsional shear stress

𝑻𝒓
𝝉=
𝑱
Shear and bending
in beams
Load > Shear Diagram
The area under the load
diagram equals the
change in shear.

Shear > Moment Diagram

The area under the
shear diagram is the
change in moment.
Shear and bending
in beams
Load > Shear Diagram
The area under the load
diagram equals the
change in shear.

Shear > Moment Diagram

The area under the
shear diagram is the
change in moment.
 Shear Failure Bending Failure
The area under the load The area under the
diagram equals the shear diagram is the
change in shear. change in moment.
 Bending stress
Bending stress is the normal stress
developed in a beam due to a bending
moment.

𝑴𝒚
𝝈=
𝑰
𝜎 – Bending Stress
𝑀 – Bending Moment
𝑦 – distance from the neutral axis
𝐼 – moment of inertia
 BEAM DEFLECTION
It is the vertical displacement of a structural
member from its original position due to
applied loads.

Key Concepts in Beam Deflection

▪ Elastic Curve
▪ Maximum Deflection
▪ Permissible Limits

Factors Influencing Deflection

▪ Load
▪ Length
▪ Material
▪ Cross-section
 Buckling of columns
Column buckling is a structural failure mode where slender columns under high compression
abruptly bend laterally when the load exceeds a critical threshold, known as the Euler buckling
load. It is a sudden, deceptive, and dangerous failure mechanism, often causing catastrophic
collapse before material yielding occurs.

Key Concepts in Buckling

▪ Critical Load
▪ Euler’s Formula
▪ Slenderness Ratio
▪ Failure Mode
▪ Prevention
Factors Influencing Buckling
▪ Material Stiffness
▪ Cross-sectional Shape
▪ Effective Length
 04
THEORY OF
STRUCTURES
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 Basic structural concepts

load stress strain

Elastic vs Factor of safety

plastic
Types of loads
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
BEAMS Beams resist bending.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
columns Columns carry axial compression.

Based on Slenderness Ratio Based on End Conditions

▪ Short Column ▪ Pinned-Pinned

▪ Long Column ▪ Fixed-Free
▪ Intermediate Column ▪ Fixed-Pinned
▪ Fixed-Fixed

Based on Loading Based on Shape

▪ Axially Loaded Column ▪ Circular

▪ Eccentrically Loaded ▪ Square/Rectangular
Column ▪ I-shaped
▪ Composite Columns
 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
Slabs are thick, flat, and typically horizontal components made of
slabs concrete, stone, metal, or wood, primarily used in construction for floors,
roofs, and foundations. They act as essential structural elements that bear
and distribute loads to supporting walls, beams, or columns.

One-way Slab

A one-way slab is a slab that

primarily bends and carries
load in one direction only.

Two-way Slab

A two-way slab is a slab that

bends and carries load in two
directions.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
Slabs are thick, flat, and typically horizontal components made of
slabs concrete, stone, metal, or wood, primarily used in construction for floors,
roofs, and foundations. They act as essential structural elements that bear
and distribute loads to supporting walls, beams, or columns.

One-way Slab Two-way Slab

𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛
≥2 <2
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛
The slab is much longer in one The slab is almost square.
direction. Load is transferred to all four
Load is transferred to two supports.
opposite supports only. Main reinforcement provided
Main reinforcement bars run in both directions.
along the shorter span.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
Slabs are thick, flat, and typically horizontal components made of
slabs concrete, stone, metal, or wood, primarily used in construction for floors,
roofs, and foundations. They act as essential structural elements that bear
and distribute loads to supporting walls, beams, or columns.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
footings A footing is the lowest part of a foundation that transfers the load of a
structure safely to the soil. It supports columns, walls, or structural
elements. It spreads the load so soil can carry it without failure or
excessive settlement.

Isolated Footing

▪ Supports one column only.

▪ Light to moderate loads.
▪ Columns are spaced far
apart.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
footings A footing is the lowest part of a foundation that transfers the load of a
structure safely to the soil. It supports columns, walls, or structural
elements. It spreads the load so soil can carry it without failure or
excessive settlement.

Combined Footing

▪ Supports two or more

columns.
▪ Property line prevents
centered footing.
▪ Columns are close together.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
footings A footing is the lowest part of a foundation that transfers the load of a
structure safely to the soil. It supports columns, walls, or structural
elements. It spreads the load so soil can carry it without failure or
excessive settlement.

Strap (Cantilever) Footing

▪ Two isolated footings

connected by a strap beam.
▪ Balances load when column
is near a property line.
▪ Does not carry soil load
directly.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
footings A footing is the lowest part of a foundation that transfers the load of a
structure safely to the soil. It supports columns, walls, or structural
elements. It spreads the load so soil can carry it without failure or
excessive settlement.

Continuous (Strip) Footing

▪ Supports a wall or row of

columns.
▪ Perimeter walls
▪ Residential Construction
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
footings A footing is the lowest part of a foundation that transfers the load of a
structure safely to the soil. It supports columns, walls, or structural
elements. It spreads the load so soil can carry it without failure or
excessive settlement.

Mat or Raft Footing

▪ A large slab supporting

entire building
▪ Used when soil is weak
▪ Prevent differential
settlement
▪ Used in high-rise buildings
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
footings A footing is the lowest part of a foundation that transfers the load of a
structure safely to the soil. It supports columns, walls, or structural
elements. It spreads the load so soil can carry it without failure or
excessive settlement.

Shallow Footings Deep Footings

▪ Depth is less than or equal ▪ Used when surface soil is

to width weak
▪ Used when surface soil is ▪ Pile foundation
strong ▪ Caisson Foundation
▪ Isolated, strip, combined,
and mat
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
trusses A truss is a structural framework made of straight members connected
at joints forming triangular units. It is used to support roofs, bridges,
and long spans. It transfers loads efficiently to supports.

Why is it commonly a Triangle? Main Parts of a Truss

▪ Strongest geometric shape ▪ Top Chord
in structures ▪ Bottom Chord
▪ Cannot change shape ▪ Web Members
without changing length of ▪ Joint
sides ▪ Support
▪ Prevents bending of long
members
 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
trusses A truss is a structural framework made of straight members connected
at joints forming triangular units. It is used to support roofs, bridges,
and long spans. It transfers loads efficiently to supports.

King Post Truss

One vertical post in center.

Two diagonal members.
Used in small spans (5-8 m).
Residential roofs.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
trusses A truss is a structural framework made of straight members connected
at joints forming triangular units. It is used to support roofs, bridges,
and long spans. It transfers loads efficiently to supports.

Queen Post Truss

Two vertical posts.

Longer spans than king post.
Residential and halls.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
trusses A truss is a structural framework made of straight members connected
at joints forming triangular units. It is used to support roofs, bridges,
and long spans. It transfers loads efficiently to supports.

Fink Truss

Recognized by W-shaped web.

Used commonly in houses,
industrial buildings.
Medium spans.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
trusses A truss is a structural framework made of straight members connected
at joints forming triangular units. It is used to support roofs, bridges,
and long spans. It transfers loads efficiently to supports.

Howe Truss

Diagonals in compression
Used in timber construction
Bridges
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
trusses A truss is a structural framework made of straight members connected
at joints forming triangular units. It is used to support roofs, bridges,
and long spans. It transfers loads efficiently to supports.

Pratt Truss

Opposite of Howe
Steel bridges
Long spans
 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
trusses A truss is a structural framework made of straight members connected
at joints forming triangular units. It is used to support roofs, bridges,
and long spans. It transfers loads efficiently to supports.

Warren Truss

No vertical members (usually)

Used in bridges, long spans, steel
structures.
 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR
frames Like a combination of columns and beams. It is the skeleton of a building.

Rigid Frame Braced Frame Pinned Frame

▪ No diagonal bracing ▪ Frame stabilized using ▪ Connections allow

required diagonal bracing rotation.
▪ Used in high-rise members.
▪ Modern steel structures
 structural systems
A structural system is the method or arrangement of structural elements that supports
and transfers loads safely to the ground.
It supports dead and live loads, resist wind and earthquake.
It also transfer load safely to foundation.
It prevents collapse and excessive movement.

Slab Beam Column/Wall Foundation Soil

 Types of structural systems
Load-Bearing Wall System
Walls carry structural loads of floors and roof.
No columns required.
Thick walls.
Limited height.
Short spans.
 Types of structural systems
Framed Structure System
Structure composed of beams and columns
forming a frame.
Walls are non-load bearing (partitions only).
Flexible planning.
Taller buildings possible.
Large openings allowed.
 Types of structural systems
Truss System
Triangular framework carrying roof or long-
span loads.
Lightweight.
Efficient load distribution.
Usually, steel and timber.
 Types of structural systems
Shear Wall System
Vertical walls resist lateral forces (wind &
earthquake).
Provides stiffness
Prevents swaying
Essential in tall buildings
 Types of structural systems
Braced Frame System
Frame strengthened with diagonal bracing.
Resists lateral loads.
Used in steel buildings, industrial structures,
earthquake-resistant design.
 Types of structural systems
Space Frame/Space Truss
3D structural system spanning large areas.
Lightweight, long span, modern, steel
Used in airports, domes, stadiums
 Stability and determinacy
A structure is stable if it can maintain its shape and resist collapse under load.

Stable Structures Unstable Structures

Does not move when load applied. Moves or collapses.
Properly supported. Lacks supports.
Has enough restraints. Poor arrangement of members.
Maintains shape. Can change shape easily.

Determinacy refers to whether forces/reactions can be solved using

equilibrium equations only.
Statically Determinate Statically Indeterminate
 Reinforced concrete concept
CONCRETE + STEEL

Concrete Steel
Strong in compression. Strong in tension.

▪ Almost same thermal expansion.

▪ Strong bond between steel and concrete.
▪ Steel does not slip inside concrete.
▪ Concrete protects steel from fire and corrosion.
 Structural failures
Structural failure happens when a structure can no longer safely
carry loads and cracks, deforms excessively, or collapses.

Buckling Failure
Sudden sideways bending of a
slender compression member.
Usually occurs in columns and
slender members.
Compression load too high.
 Structural failures
Structural failure happens when a structure can no longer safely
carry loads and cracks, deforms excessively, or collapses.

Shear Failure
Failure due to diagonal cracking
caused by shear force.
Occurs in beams, columns, and slabs.
Diagonal cracks, sudden failure.
 Structural failures
Structural failure happens when a structure can no longer safely
carry loads and cracks, deforms excessively, or collapses.

Bending (Flexural) Failure

Failure due to excessive bending
moment.
Occurs in beams and slabs.
Cracks at tension zone.
Usually gradual.
 Structural failures
Structural failure happens when a structure can no longer safely
carry loads and cracks, deforms excessively, or collapses.

Torsion Failure
Failure due to twisting of member.
Occurs in beams, irregular structures,
and cantilever projections.
 Structural failures
Structural failure happens when a structure can no longer safely
carry loads and cracks, deforms excessively, or collapses.

Foundation Failure
Due to weak soil, uneven settlement,
poor footing design, and overloading.
Wall cracks, tilting building, uneven
floors, and collapse.
 Structural failures
Structural failure happens when a structure can no longer safely
carry loads and cracks, deforms excessively, or collapses.

Ductile Failure Brittle Failure

Gives warning. Sudden.
Gradual. No warning.
Large deformation. Dangerous.
 05
Steel and timber
design
STEEL DESIGN
Steel design is the process of designing structural members made
of structural steel to safely resist loads.

In involves beams, columns, trusses, connections, and bracing

systems.

Steel is widely used in high-rise buildings, industrial structures,

long-span roofs, and bridges.

Why use steel?

Very strong
High strength-to-weight ratio
Ductile (bends before breaking)
Fast construction
Prefabricated
Recyclable
 Basic steel structural members
Steel beams Steel trusses
01 03

Steel columns Steel bracing

02 04
 Steel connections
Bolted connections
 Steel connections
welded connections
 Advantages of disadvantages of
steel steel
▪ High strength ▪ Corrosion
▪ Lightweight ▪ Needs fire protection
▪ Faster construction ▪ Expensive
▪ Long spans possible ▪ Buckling risk in slender members
▪ Ductile
Failure in steel structures
▪ Buckling
▪ Yielding
▪ Fracture
▪ Connection Failure
 Steel design methods
Load Resistance Factor Design
Allowable Stress Design (ASD) (LRFD)

Keep the stress in the material Consider real loads and

LOW so it never reaches multiply them to make sure
failure. structure still survives worst
case.
ASD makes sure that:
Actual stress in steel or LRFD assumes that loads may
concrete is less than the increase due to wind,
allowable safe stress. earthquake, and people.
TIMBER DESIGN
Timber is wood prepared and used for building and structural
purposes.

It is used for beams, columns, roof framing, trusses, floors,

doors/windows.

Why use timber?

Easy to work with
Lightweight
Renewable material
Aesthetic
Good insulation
Economical
Common uses of timber
 Seasoning of Types of
timber timber
The process of removing moisture ▪ Hardwood
from wood. ▪ Softwood
It prevents shrinkage, decay, and
warping.
It increases strength.
 Advantages of disadvantages of
timber timber
▪ Lightweight ▪ Fire risk
▪ Easy construction ▪ Termites
▪ Fast installation ▪ Rot and decay
▪ Renewable ▪ Limited span
▪ Good insulation ▪ Needs maintenance
▪ Aesthetic
Timber vs. steel vs. concrete
Kaya pa?
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