PSY 484

RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

BY

DR. OKHAKHUME A. S. & EIGBADON G. E

 TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER ONE: Definition and Importance of Research…………………………………2

CHAPTER TWO: Types of Research……………………………………………………….5

CHAPTER THREE: Research Methods………………………………………….………….9

CHAPTER FOUR: Variables and Identification of Variables in Research..……………….16

CHAPTER FIVE: Measurements in Research………………………………………...……20

CHAPTER SIX: Reliability and validity of Measures………………………………..…….24

CHAPTER SEVEN: Sampling and Sampling Techniques……………………….………..28

CHAPTER EIGHT: Hypothesis and Hypotheses Testing……………………………..…..33

CHAPTER NINE: Research Designs……………………………………………………..…38

CHAPTER TEN: Research Ethics…………………………………………………………44

CHAPTER ELEVEN: Writing a Research Proposal in Psychology……………………...49

CHAPTER ONE

DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Just as people usually attempt to give definitions to every concept, so also in this lecture, students

will be introduced to the basic meaning of research and its relevance to the discipline, psychology.

Objective

At the end of the lecture, you would be able to define research and its importance in the discipline

of psychology.

Pre-Test

 Give a definition of research.

 Why is research important in Psychology?

CONTENT

Psychological studies continue to be an important part of scientific research. Without the

experiments and tests conducted, the world would know significantly little about many different

diseases, disorders, and other human issues. Psychologists must continue to conduct research in

order to maintain, nurture, and augment the general knowledge of humans. Research helps us
understand what makes people think, feel, and act in certain ways. It allows us to categorize

psychological disorders in order to understand the symptoms and impact on the individual and

society. Researches helps us to understand how intimate relationships, development, schools,

family, peers, and religion affect us as individuals and as a society; and helps us to develop

effective treatments to improve the quality of life of individuals and groups. In this sense,

psychological research is typically used for the following:

 Study development and external factors and the role they play on individuals' mental health

 Study people with specific psychological disorders, symptoms, or characteristics

 Develop tests to measure specific psychological phenomenon

 Develop treatment approaches to improve individuals' mental health

Therefore, conducting research is a compulsory exercise before any student can be awarded a

degree and this has consistently been an odious task among many students. Their difficulty is

usually related to the selection of topics, conceptualization of problems, adequate review of past

studies and many others. In actually sense, research is an entity. It is a whole that is, the

combination of different parts coming together. Research is a systematic process of arriving at a

dependable solution to problems. It also involves collection, analysis and interpretation of data.

(Osuala,1987). It is an organized investigation of a problem and a systematic approach to its

solution or alleviation of the simple, complex, immediate or long term problem. It is also an

attempt at testing the relationship between two or more events based on a prior knowledge in an

acceptable scientific manner. The process of gathering the data and what is gathered are what

makes the process scientific. Therefore research remains an art that must be mastered.
Summary

In this lectures we defined research as a systematic process of arriving at a dependable solution to

a problem. It also involves collection, analysis and interpretation of data. Research helps us

understand what makes people think, feel, and act in certain ways. It allows us to categorize

psychological disorders in order to understand the symptoms and impact on the individual and

society. Researches helps us to understand how intimate relationships, development, schools,

family, peers, and religion affect us as individuals and as a society; and helps us to develop

effective treatments to improve the quality of life of individuals and groups. Research is an entity.

It is a whole that is, the combination of different parts coming together.

Post-Test

 Give a definition of research?

 Why is it necessary to conduct research in psychology?

Reference

Balogun S.K.(1999): Research Methods in Psychology. Psychology: Perspectives in Human

Behaviour. Revised and Enlarged Edition. Kraft Books limited. Pg. 30-56
Osuala,E.C.(1987) Introduction to Research Methodology. Onitsha: Africana-Fep.

CHAPTER TWO

TYPES OF RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

There are two basic types of research, qualitative and quantitative research. Quantitative research

allows the researcher to familiarize him/herself with the problem or concept to be studied. The

researcher's methods involve the "use of standardized measures so that the varying perspectives

and experiences of people can fit into a limited number of predetermined response categories to

which number are assigned. Qualitative research uses a naturalistic approach that seeks to

understand phenomena in context-specific settings, such as real world setting.

Objective
At the completion of this lecture, students will be able to differentiate between the two basic types

of research (quantitative and qualitative), what they entail and the type of research they are

applied.

Pre-Test

 Give a brief definition of quantitative and qualitative research.

 When do we conduct research using qualitative research?

 When do we conduct research using quantitative research?

CONTENT

Researchers who use quantitative research employ experimental methods and quantitative

measures to test hypothetical generalizations and they also emphasize the measurement and

analysis of causal relationships between variables (Denzin and Lincoln, 1998). To illustrate the

meaning of quantitative research for its use of explaining social problems, Bogdan and Biklen

(1998) note: Charts and graphs illustrate the results of the research, and commentators employ

words such as ‘variables’, ‘populations’ and ‘result’ as part of their daily vocabulary. Often

research, then as it comes to be known publicly, is a synonym for quantitative research.

Quantitative research allows the researcher to familiarize him/herself with the problem or concept

to be studied, and perhaps generate hypotheses to be tested. In this paradigm: (1) the emphasis is

on facts and causes of behaviour (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998), (2) the information is in the form of

numbers that can be quantified and summarized, (3) the mathematical process is the norm for
analyzing the numeric data and (4) the final result is expressed in statistical terminologies (Charles,

1995).

A quantitative researcher attempts to fragment and delimit phenomena into measurable or

common categories that can be applied to all of the subjects or wider and similar situations

(Winter,2000). In his/her attempts, the researcher's methods involve the "use of standardized

measures so that the varying perspectives and experiences of people can be fit into a limited

number of predetermined response categories to which number are assigned" (Patton, 2001). For

example, a quantitative researcher may prepare a list of behaviour to be checked or rated by an

observer using a predetermined schedule or numbers (scales) as an instrument in his/her method of

research. Thus, a quantitative researcher needs to construct an instrument to be administered in

standardized manner according to predetermined procedures.

Qualitative research uses a naturalistic approach that seeks to understand phenomena in

context-specific settings, such as real world setting. The researcher does not attempt to manipulate

the phenomenon of interest Patton (2001). Qualitative research, broadly defined, means any kind

of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means

of quantification Strauss and Corbin (1990). The kind of research that produces findings arrived at

are from real-world settings where the "phenomenon of interest unfold naturally" (Patton, 2001).

Unlike quantitative researchers who seek causal determination, prediction, and generalization of

findings, qualitative researchers seek instead illumination, understanding, and extrapolation to

similar situations (Hoepfl, 1997).

Qualitative analysis includes such methods like interviews and observations which are dominant

in the naturalist researches. The use of survey serves in opposite order. The real world is subject to

change and therefore, a qualitative researcher should be present during the changes to record an
event after and before the change occurs.

This lectures defined quantitative and qualitative research and the type of researches where
they are applied. Quantitative methods involve the "use of standardized measures so that
the varying perspectives and experiences of people can be fit into a limited number of
predetermined response categories to which number are assigned". While qualitative
research uses a naturalistic approach that seeks to understand phenomena in
context-specific settings, such as real world setting. Unlike quantitative researchers who
seek causal determination, prediction, and generalization of findings, qualitative
researchers seek instead illumination, understanding, and extrapolation to similar situations
(Hoepfl, 1997).

SUMMARY

Post-Test

 What are the peculiarities of a qualitative research?

 What are the peculiarities of a quantitative research?

  Give examples of when both of them are applied in researches?

References

Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1998). Qualitative research in education: An introduction to

theory and methods (3rd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1998). Collecting and interpreting qualitative material.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hoepfl,(1997) Hoepfl, M. (1997). Choosing qualitative research: A primer for technology

education researchers. [Online] Available:
[Link]

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications, Inc.

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and
techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc

Winter, G. (2000). A comparative discussion of the notion of validity in qualitative and quantitative
research. The Qualitative Report, 4(3&4). Retrieved February 25, 1998, from
[Link]
CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODS

INTRODUCTION

There are various methods of research. This includes correlation studies, experimental research,

survey methods, observational and ex-post facto research. The specific research method a

researcher employs depends on the aims and objective of the research. The nature of the problem

or phenomenon being investigated also determines the method of research to use.

Objective

At the completion of this lecture,

 Students will be able to understand each of the methods of research.

 When they are applied.

 Students will be able to give examples on each of the research methods.

 Highlight the strength and weaknesses of each of the research methods.

Pre-Test

 Name the different methods of research available.

 Give a brief explanation of each of the research methods.

  Give an example of a research where each of the methods can be applied.

 What are the strength and weaknesses of each of the research methods. .

CONTENT

 Correlation Research: This type of research is conducted when the researcher is

interested in finding out the relationship or strength of relationship that exist between

variables. The study also investigates which of the variables influences and which is

actually influenced. For instance, when a researcher is interested in investigating the

possible effect of media violence on children and adolescents- Exposure to violence on

television and violent behaviour among children and adolescents. In correlational studies

quantitative data are used. The result of correlational studies are often interpreted as

Positive Correlation (as one variable increases by one unit up, the other variable also

increases by one unit up) and Negative Correlation (an increase of one unit in one variable

brings about a decrease by one unit in the other variable or vice versa). There could also be

zero correlation where there is no observable change. The major limitation or

disadvantage of this type of research is that we cannot say there is a causal relationship

between the variables

 Experimental Research: This is the most useful scientific method of observation.

Experiments are helpful in assisting the researcher to reach the goals of understanding and

influencing behaviour. It also tells us the relationship that exists between two variables like

the correlational research but experiments allows the researcher to draw conclusions about

cause and effect relationship. The researcher has control of the variables of interest. The

researcher can actually determine whether a variable can cause a change in another
variable and sometimes by how much (degree or intensity). The researcher contrive the

situations in order to elicit the desired responses in a carefully controlled condition. There

are 3 types of experimental research.

 Field Experiment In this type of research the researcher manipulates the Independent

variables in a predetermined manner and then takes it to a natural setting or

environment of the participants of interest. For instance when a researcher is interested

in the effect of physical appearance on actual purchases by consumers. In such a study,

the researcher, manipulates the dressing pattern of his participants and expose them to

actual market situation where the seller does not know that they are actually

participating in a research.

 Laboratory Experiment: In this type of study the researcher has total control of all the

variables of interest that can influence or affect the dependent variables in a simulated

environment. The research situation is isolated from what is ordinarily normal, to

enable the researcher examine the interplay among the variables in greater details

(Asika, 1991). When this is done then it becomes more evident to say that the

manipulated variables actually caused the observed changes in the behaviour of interest

provided other plausible (extraneous) variables have been properly taken care of. One

of the limitations of laboratory experiment is artificiality. Since in real life situation it is

difficult to isolate other variables.

 Field Study: In field study type of research, variables are not manipulated or

controlled. Though the variables exist of themselves in the field, the researcher is only

interested in how they can help in predicting their control over other variables. The
 purpose of field research is to discover some variables of interest in the field situation

discover relationships among them and also lay a foundation for hypotheses testing.

For example, if we are interested in observing the effect of exclusive breast-feeding on

IQ of children. This can be achieved in any of these two ways: by studying different

groups of children across selected age group like 0-10 years – this is a cross sectional

field study. We` can also observe a particular set of children over a period of 10 years-

this is regarded as longitudinal field study.

 Survey Method: This is the most widely used method of research particularly in the social

sciences. This is the type of research that utilizes interviews, questionnaires and Focus

Group Discussion (FGD) with individuals in the community. It is that branch of social

investigation that studies large and small populations by selecting and studying samples

chosen from a given population to discover the relative incidence, distribution and

intercorrelation of social and psychological variables. The survey method assumes the

impossibility of using the entire population of interest hence the scientific selection of a

sample of the population. It is relatively cheaper to conduct survey research because of its

coverage ability at minimal cost. The basic disadvantages of the survey method is that the

accuracy of the information collected may be questionable. Answers may not be honest.

An example of survey research includes among others an investigation on the attitude of

students contraceptive, perception on the effectiveness of monthly environmental

sanitation exercises etc.

 Observational Method: Naturalistic observation involves careful observation and

 recording of behaviour in real life setting. Behaviour is watched and observed as it

naturally occurs. The researcher do not interfere with the situation. It is based on the

assumption that the phenomenon investigated can best be captured in its real life occurring

situation. It is often used for the study of animal behaviour. It is also used to study such

topics as the play and friendship pattern of young children, the leadership tactics of

effective managers and the way in which juvenile delinquent encourage antisocial

behaviour in one another.

 Ex-Post Facto Research: In ex-post facto type of research the researcher do not have

control of the variables of interest at hand since their relationship must have occurred and

we are only going after the fact has already been established. In other words the event has

already taken place. The researcher just want to confirm this. For example consider a study

that seek to investigate the effect of anxiety and Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on

victims of the last flood disaster in Ibadan. The flooding has already occurred. It is not

subject to any manipulation likewise the anxiety. The usual practice in ex-post facto

research is that it is a kind of retrospective search for the effect or influence of the

independent variable on the dependent variable. The major disadvantage is that it lacks

precision and the extent of generalization is limited.

In this study we have learnt about the different methods of research which includes; correlation

studies, experimental research, survey methods, observational and ex-post facto research are some

examples of research methods. Correlation studies are conducted when the researcher is interested

in finding out the relationship or strength of relationship that exist between variables. In

experimental researches allows the researcher to draw conclusions about cause and effect

relationship. The researcher has control of the variables of interest. Types of experimental research

include field experiments, laboratory experiments and field study. Survey research is that branch

of social investigation that studies large and small populations by selecting and studying samples

chosen from a given population to discover the relative incidence, distribution and intercorrelation

of the variables. It utilizes such instruments like the interviews, questionnaire, FGD etc.

Naturalistic observation involves careful observation and recording of behaviour in real life setting.

Finally, the ex-post facto research is that kind of retrospective search for the effect or influence of

the independent variable on the dependent variable when the interaction has already occurred.

Summary
Post-Test

 Give a brief definition of research?

 What are the basic characteristics of each of the research methods?

 State the advantages of each of the research methods?

 Identify some of the basic limitations in each of the methods.

Reference

Asika, N (1991) Research Methodology in the Behavioural sciences. Lagos: Longman.

Balogun S.K.(1999): Research Methods in Psychology. Psychology: Perspectives in Human

Behaviour. Revised and Enlarged Edition. Kraft Books limited. Pg. 30-56
McBurney D.H. & White T.L. (2004) Research Methods. Wadsworth Thomson.

William J.R. (2003) Methods: Towards a Science of Behaviour. Wadsworth Thomson.

CHAPTER FOUR

VARIABLES AND IDENTIFICATION OF VARIABLES IN RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

We have seen in previous study notes that research is the systematic and empirical study of

relationships among variables. A variable is something that can be changed, such as a

characteristic or value. Variables are generally used in psychological studies to determine if

changes to one variable result in changes to another variable. The variables can be measured in a

quantitative form or in a qualitative form. For example, you may want to describe some

characteristics of a person in quantitative form, such as his/her age, height, weight etc. You might

also need to characterize some other characteristics of this person in qualitative forms, like the

colour of the eyes, the sex, the nationality etc.

Objective

At the completion of this lecture,

 Students will be able to state the characteristics of variables.

 Students will be able to state the different types of variables.

 Students will know the differences that exist between these variables.
Pre-Test

 Define variables.

 Write a brief note on each of the variables?

 What are the characteristics of variables and give examples?

CONTENT

All research projects are based around variables. A variable is any construct or concept that

has been identified as capable of taking two or more values. Variable is the characteristic or

attribute of an individual, group, educational system, or the environment that is of interest in a

research study. Variables can be straightforward and easy to measure, such as gender, age, or

course of study. Other variables are more complex, such as socioeconomic status, academic

achievement, or attitude toward school. Variables may also include an aspect of the educational

system, such as a specific teaching method or counseling program.

Types of Variables

There are two major types of variables that are important in any research, independent and

dependent variables. The variable that an experimenter manipulates in a study is called

Independent variable. A variable is said to be independent when its level are established by the

researcher before the research begins and are thus independent of anything that happens during the

experiment. It is the presumed cause of the observed change in the dependent variable. It is often

referred to as the “predictor variable”. This is because it is the variable that is being manipulated by

the researcher. On the other hand the Dependent variable is the one that we want to measure as it
was influenced by the independent variable. It is sometimes called the “criterion variable” because

it is the one the researcher want to explain. For example, in a study investigating the factors that

affect the consumption of popcorn by teenagers, some variables that might be considered includes

level of consumption of popcorn, sex, amount of income available, age, etc. If you study these

variables carefully you will see that there is one variable that we are always contrasting against the

others. For example, we are saying, let us see if males consume more popcorn than females. In this

case we are studying whether sex affects level of consumption of popcorn. Take now the case of

available income, here we are looking at whether teenager with more money in their pockets buy

more popcorn, therefore we are studying whether available income affects level of consumption of

popcorn. Similarly all the other variables we have listed are being studied in relation to ONE

variable, level of consumption of popcorn. This ONE variable is called the dependent variable. All

the other variables are called independent variables. Each independent variable will be studied to

see if it has an effect on the dependable variable.

Other types of variables include the extraneous variable this is another type of variable

that influences the dependent variable exactly the same way as the independent variable but they

are variables that the researcher did not put into consideration at the beginning of the research.

They are unintended independent variables they are also called confounding or concomitant

variable. Extraneous variables are like weed which the farmer noticed in his cassava farm.

In this study we have learnt that a variable is something that can be changed, such as a

characteristic or value. Variables can be measured in a quantitative form or in a qualitative

form. There are two major types of variables that are important in any research,

independent and dependent variables. The independent variable is the variable that an
experimenter manipulates in a study. It also called the predictor variable while the

dependent variable also called the criterion variable is the one that we want to measure as it

was influenced by the independent variable. The extraneous variable is the unintended

variable that affects the dependent variable. It is also called confounding or concomitant

variable.

Summary

“ Study on assertiveness influenced by ethnicity, age and sex”.

Post Test

Identify the variables in this topics.

 The influence of age and sex on the level of aggression among toddlers.
  An assessment of the impact of ethnicity, educational status and physical appearance

on attitude towards employment considerations.

Reference

Balogun S.K.(1999): Research Methods in Psychology. Psychology: Perspectives in Human

Behaviour. Revised and Enlarged Edition. Kraft Books limited. Pg. 30-56
McBurney D.H. & White T.L. (2004) Research Methods. Wadsworth Thomson.

William J.R. (2003) Methods: Towards a Science of Behaviour. Wadsworth Thomson.

CHAPTER FIVE

MEASUREMENTS IN RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to indicants or variables in other to clarify the

concepts of research problem (Fagbohungbe,1996). Kelinger (1964) defined measurement as the

assignment of numerals to objects of events according to rules, the numerals being a symbol of the

form,; 1,2,3…., or I,II,III……. It is important however that a numeral has no quantitative meaning

until and unless we give it such a meaning. There are four basic types of scale of measurement

namely; nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scale.

Objective

At the completion of this lecture, students are expected to be able to identify each of the scales of

measurement. When they are used and limitations during research procedures.
Pre-Test

 Define nominal scale

 What is the major difference between interval scale and ratio scale?

 Give examples of nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scale.

CONTENT

Variables are not only quantitative or qualitative; they are also measured in different ways such as

using different scales such as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scale.

NOMINAL SCALE: This is also categorical scale used in classifying or naming activities e.g sex,

religion, ethnic group etc. they are often qualitative (kind) and not of degree (quantitative). They

function mainly as labels or identity. Other examples include, number of jerseys, telephone

number, post office numbers and on.

ORDINAL SCALE: This is advancement on the nominal scale. It has some degree of quantitative

differences. There is an underlying continuum. It connotes identity and magnitude. Examples

include class standing, birth order, cadre (superiority in office), order (categories and rank).

INTERVAL SCALE: This is a further improvement on the nominal and ordinal scale. There is an

underlying quantitative dimension. It is the mostly used scale of measurement. There are equal

intervals between consecutive scale values or scores. Equal interval means equal amount of the

quantity been measured between every two successive number on the scale. The interval

difference between 4 and 6 is the same between 10 and 12. It has the characteristics of identity,

magnitude and equal interval.

RATIO SCALE: This is regarded as the most sophisticated scale in the sense that it combines all

the qualities of the other scales in terms of identity, magnitude, equal interval and it can have a

value with absolute zero point. Examples are length, weight, time, reaction time, number of

responses made by an individual.

IDENTIFYING SCALE OF MEASUREMENT

Usually, scales of measurement depends on the device (scale, questionnaire etc) used for

measuring the particular concept being studied. The design of the measuring instrument depends

on s theoretical understanding of the underlying concept. Once a concept can be theoretically

described, the problem of measurement is reduced. Scales of measurement is related to how a

particular concept is being measured and the questions being asked. Measuring device must be

both reliable and valid.

We have learnt in this study that nominal scale are used in classifying or naming or idantifying

activities examples includes sex, religion, ethnic group, number of jerseys, telephone number etc.

Ordinal scale connotes identity and magnitude examples include class standing, birth order, cadre

and so on. With an Interval scale there is an underlying quantitative dimension. It is the mostly

used scale of measurement. There are equal intervals between consecutive scale values or scores.

This is an addition to the other qualities of the other scale. The Ratio scale is the most sophisticated

it combines the characteristics of identity, magnitude, equal interval and it can have a value with

absolute zero point. Examples are length, weight, time, reaction time and so on.

SUMMARY
Post-Test

Identify the scale of measurement of the following;

Birth order

Skin colour

Temperature

Class size

Socio-economic status

Wages (in Naira)

Job position

Job status

Anxiety rating

Examination performance.
Sex

Amount of disposable income

Age

Performance at School

Sports Achievement

Alcohol consumption in the home

Religious Affiliation

Reference

Balogun S.K.(1999): Research Methods in Psychology. Psychology: Perspectives in Human

Behaviour. Revised and Enlarged Edition. Kraft Books limited. Pg. 30-56

CHAPTER SIX

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF MEASURES

INTRODUCTION
The two most important and fundamental characteristics of any measurement procedure are

reliability and validity. These two will be considered in turn.

Objective

At the completion of this lecture, students are expected to be able to understand what it takes for a

scale to be considered valid and reliable.

Pre-Test

 What does validity of a measures entail?

 What does reliability of a measure means?

CONTENT

Reliability of a measure tells us to what extent a scale is dependable. It is defined as the extent to

which a questionnaire, test, observation or any measurement procedure produces the same results

on repeated trials. In short, it is the stability or consistency of scores over time or across raters.

Keep in mind that reliability pertains to scores not people. Thus, in research we would never say

that someone was reliable. As an example, the degree to which an individual’s responses (i.e., their

scores) on a survey would stay the same over time is also a sign of reliability. An important point

to understand is that a measure can be perfectly reliable and yet not be valid. Consider a bathroom

scale that always weighs you as being 10kg. heavier than your true weight. This scale (though

invalid as it incorrectly assesses weight) is perfectly reliable as it consistently weighs you as being

10kg. heavier than you truly are. A scale that is reliable must be predictable. The second aspect of

reliability, stability, is said to occur when the same or similar scores are obtained with repeated

testing with the same group of respondents. In other words, the scores are consistent from one time

to the next. Stability is assessed through a test-retest procedure that involves administering the
same measurement instrument to the same individuals under the same conditions after some period

of time. Test-rest reliability is estimated with correlations between the scores at Time 1 and those

at Time 2 (to Time x). Two assumptions underlie the use of the test-retest procedure. The first

required assumption is that the characteristic that is measured does not change over the time period.

The second assumption is that the time period is long enough that the respondents’ memories of

taking the test at Time 1 does not influence their scores at the second and subsequent test

administrations The third and last aspect of reliability is internal consistency (or homogeneity).

Internal consistency concerns the extent to which items on the test or instrument are measuring

the same thing. If, for example, you are developing a test to measure organizational commitment

you should determine the reliability of each item. If the individual items are highly correlated with

each other you can be highly confident in the reliability of the entire scale. The split-half

reliability entails dividing up the test into two parts (e.g., odd/even items or first half of the

items/second half of the items), administering the two forms to the same group of individuals and

correlating the responses. Coefficient alpha represent the average of all possible split-half

estimates.

Validity

Validity is defined as the extent to which the instrument measures what it purports to measure.

This is the ability of instruments to measure exactly what it set out to measure. For example, a test

that is used to screen applicants for a job is valid if its scores are directly related to future job

performance. Differences in scores reflects true differences between individuals. There are many

different types of validity, including: content validity, face validity, criterion-related validity (or

predictive validity), construct validity, concurrent validity others which might not be discussed in

details are convergent validity and divergent (or discriminant validity).

Content validity pertains to the degree to which the instrument fully assesses or measures the

construct of interest. For example, say we are interested in evaluating employees’ attitudes toward

a training program within an organization. We would want to ensure that our questions fully

represent the domain of attitudes toward the training program. The development of a content valid

instrument is typically achieved by a rational analysis of the instrument by raters (ideally 3 to 5)

familiar with the construct of interest. Specifically, raters will review all of the items for

readability, clarity and comprehensiveness and come to some level of agreement as to which items

should be included in the final instrument.

Face validity is a component of content validity and is established when an individual reviewing

the instrument concludes that it measures the characteristic or trait of interest. For instance, if a

quiz in this class comprised items that asked questions pertaining to research methods you would

most likely conclude that it was face valid. In short, it looks as if it is indeed measuring what it is

designed to measure.

Criterion-related validity is assessed when one is interested in determining the relationship of

scores on a test to a specific criterion. An example is that scores on an admissions test into the

Distance learning programme should be related to CGPA or class of degree at the completion of

the program. Conversely, an instrument that measured your cap size would most assuredly

demonstrate very poor criterion-related validity with respect to success in post graduate school.

Construct validity is the degree to which an instrument actually measures the trait or theoretical

construct that it is intended to measure. For example, if you were to develop an instrument to

measure intelligence, that instrument should indeed measure IQ and nothing else. Then this test is

construct valid. Construct validity is very much an ongoing process as one refines a theory, if

necessary, in order to make predictions about test scores in various settings and situations.
We have learnt in this study that reliability of a measure that tells us to what extent a scale is

dependable. It is the stability or consistency of scores over time or across raters. An important

point to understand is that a measure can be perfectly reliable and yet not be valid. A scale that is

reliable must be predictable. Stability is assessed through a test-retest procedure. Validity is

defined as the extent to which the instrument measures what it purports to measure. Differences in

scores reflects true differences between individuals. Types of validity, includes: content validity,

face validity, criterion-related validity, construct validity and concurrent validity

SUMMARY

Post-Test

 Define reliability and state how it is assessed.

 Define what it takes for a scale to be valid.

 Briefly explain the different types of validity in a research.

Reference
Balogun S.K.(1999): Research Methods in Psychology. Psychology: Perspectives in Human
Behaviour. Revised and Enlarged Edition. Kraft Books limited. Pg. 30-56
McBurney D.H. & White T.L. (2004) Research Methods. Wadsworth Thomson.

William J.R. (2003) Methods: Towards a Science of Behaviour. Wadsworth Thomson.

CHAPTER SEVEN

SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION

Sampling involves the selection of people or nonhuman (animals) from a population to participate

in a research. It refers to a proportion of the population which of necessity has the characteristics of

the population. Examples includes a sample of Nigerian Students can be taken from University of

Ibadan. There are basically two types of sampling techniques which are random (probabilistic) and

nonrandom (non-probabilistic) sampling.

Objective

At the end of this lecture, students will be able to understand the different types of sampling, what

can be considered as a sample size, techniques and their applications.

Pre-Test

 What is sampling?

 What is a sample size?

 Define the different types of sampling and give examples.

CONTENT

Sampling is a finite number of an item (or individual) taken from a population having identical

characteristics with those of the population from which it was taken. A sample is considered

biased if one or several of the items (or individuals) in the population are given a consistently

better opportunity to be chosen than the others.

Studies are valid only if we select a sample size that is representative of the population from where

it is taken. The larger the sample, the more accurately it represents the population from which it

was taken. As the sample size decreases, the degree of representativeness becomes less.

The best method of ensuring that an accurate sample has been drawn is through random sampling.

Random sampling is that method of drawing a sample of a population so that each member of the

population has an equal chance of being selected. There are basically two major types of sampling

namely probabilistic and non-probabilistic sampling. In probabilistic sampling every member of

the population has an equal chance of being selected. In other words any member of the population

chosen or not is due to chance. The selected members are believed to possess the general

characteristics of the population they represent. Examples of probabilistic sampling includes,

simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling.

Simple random sampling involves selecting members of the population at random which could

be through the use of balloting (using ballot papers) where those who picked “yes” tally are chosen

to participate in a research and those that picked “no” tally are excluded from the research. Also a

table of random numbers can be used in selecting the participants.

Systematic random sampling involves listing out all the members of the population and selecting

all those that belong to the nth position e.g. the 3rd or the 5th or 10th position on the list are selected.
Stratified random sampling involves the selection of participants according to how they are

distributed in the population by strata such as sex, economic status, social status and other

demographic variables. However all the strata must be represented. Otherwise the overall outcome

of the study will be influenced. Participants are selected according to their proportion in the

population such as sex (60% male and 40% female), religion (40% Christian,32% Muslim and

28% others) etc.

Cluster sampling it is usually used but not limited to issues related to geographical spread where

participants are first clustered into a particular group. Such grouping may include place of

residence, type of job or occupation, types of car or socioeconomic status. The researcher then

select a representative sample of the cluster. Both the cluster and the selection are randomly done.

Both cluster and stratified sampling are similar and may be used together or interchangeably.

Non-Probabilistic sampling

In the non-probabilistic sampling technique, normal distribution of the population is not assumed

There is non-randomization in the selection of the participants. Examples of non-probabilistic

sampling includes, quota sampling, snowball sampling, accidental and purposive sampling.

Quota Sampling This involves the selection of participants according to proportion decided ahead

of time by the researcher based on his or her knowledge of how the population of interest is

constituted. The researcher determines the number of participants that will participate according to

the number he requires from the population. For example we may decide before a research

commences that we will involve only 40% female and 60% male in the research. We may even

decide that we will use equal number of participants.

Snowball Sampling is used by identifying first the subjects that satisfy the phenomenon of
interest that the researcher wants to investigate. In most times the participants are difficult to come

by because of the nature of the problem or the issue being investigated. Examples includes illicit

drug users on campus, cult members, circumcised females etc. The researcher only need to identify

just one participants whose cooperation is ensured and reveals others in his or her situation. Also

the newly introduced respondents reveals new sets of similar patterns thus increasing the sample

until a representative sample is achieved.

Accidental or purposive Sampling This is also referred to as convenient sampling. It involves the

use of samples that are available. The researcher uses those subjects that comes their way in the

course of the research. These are participants the researcher feels will satisfy the research interest.

Examples include using students, Nurses or other groups that satisfy the research interest.

In this study we have learnt that Sampling is a finite number of an item taken from a

population having identical characteristics with those of the population from which it was

taken. There are basically two major types of sampling namely probabilistic and

non-probabilistic sampling. In probabilistic sampling every member of the population has

an equal chance of being selected. Examples of probabilistic sampling includes, simple

random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling. In the

non-probabilistic sampling technique, normal distribution of the population is not assumed.

There is non-randomization in the selection of the participants. Examples of

non-probabilistic sampling includes, quota sampling, snowball sampling, accidental and

purposive sampling.
SUMMARY

Post-Test.

 Discuss the two basic types of sampling techniques.

 Give examples the two types of sampling.

 Give brief explanation on each of the examples given.

References

Balogun S.K.(1999): Research Methods in Psychology. Psychology: Perspectives in Human

Behaviour. Revised and Enlarged Edition. Kraft Books limited. Pg. 30-56
McBurney D.H. & White T.L. (2004) Research Methods. Wadsworth Thomson.
William J.R. (2003) Methods: Towards a Science of Behaviour. Wadsworth Thomson.

CHAPTER EIGHT

Hypothesis and Hypotheses testing

INTRODUCTION

In psychology, research resonators are often guided by hypothesis which must be derived from

literature initially reviewed. This is to ensure that the result analysis and discussion drains or builds
upon previous research. It is easier to discuss the result of your study by making reference to the

relevant literature. Hypotheses assist the researcher to give meaning or relevance to research

efforts.

Objective

At the end of this lecture, students will be able to understand what hypotheses are, the different

types of hypotheses and their importance in research endeavours.

Pre-Test

 State a null hypothesis.

 State an alternative hypothesis.

 What are differences between parametric and Non-parametric tests?

CONTENT

Osuala (1987) defines hypothesis as a connectional statement of the expected relationship between

two or more variables. An hypothesis is a proposition of testable relationship this relationship can

only be confirmed after the result has been analyzed and found to be statistically significant.

Hypothesis must be derived from or compliment the stated problem of the study. Remember that a
study problem is a statement of interrogation that ask questions about the possibility of a

relationship between two or more variables. It could also be an intuitive statement of possible

existence of a phenomenon. Example; “would recall ability be a time-ion of age?” or would there

be a change in behavior as a result of exposure of a nauseating stimulus.”

There are basically two types of hypothesis depending on the form and level of abstraction

inherent in them. These are null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.

Null hypothesis: This is a statistical hypothesis that appears to hesitate to indicate the effect of the

treatment on the observed outcome and so play safe by giving no direction. If for instance the null

hypothesis is rejected, then we have confidence in the effect of the treatment. Null hypothesis are

often represented with Ho. e.g. there is no relationship between the performance level of boys and

girls in mathematical training.

The alternative hypothesis: This is an hypothesis that shows conviction and also shows degree

and director of the relationship among two or more variables as dictated by the interest of the

researcher. It is often represented with Hi. Examples of alternative hypotheses are older boys will

significantly perform higher than younger boys when exposed to mathematical training. Females

will significantly perform better than males in a finger definite test. These hypotheses are also

referred to as directional hypothesis. It also makes for easy interpretation and linkages among

variables. In some instances alternative hypotheses may also be non-directional in the sense that

they do not indicate it group A or B will score higher on the dependent variable. Rather the

hypothesis only states that a difference between the two groups is expected. Example: sex will

significantly influence performance in a mathematical training.

Hypotheses testing:

Fagbohungbe (1996) noted that data analysis is the bedrock of any scientific inquiry. It is a way of

testing our hypothesis or proposition of the research. Data analysis begins with the basic or

elementary statistics such as mean, median, mode, centile, standard deviation, variance and

percentages of the observed measures of the phenomenon can be described. Too test if these is or

are differences among groups of interest we have to make a choice of statistical test that is most

appropriate for the hypothesis stated.

There are two basic types of tests. These are parametric and Non-parametric tests. What informs

the type of test to adopt is the nature of data collected which could be norminal, ordinal, interval or

ration. The use of a parametric test is based on the assumption that the groups are randomly

selected from the target population – the data to be analyzed are measured on interval or ratio

scales and the population are normally distributed. Examples of parametric test includes, t-test,

AWOVA, person moment correlation, and regression analysis. While Non-parametric test are test

that are used when the population are not normally distributed. The type of measurement are

norminal or ordinal scales and the sample size is small. Examples of such test includes chi-square,

wilcoxon, mann-whitney u spearman rank or der correlation and kruskul – wallis tests.

A parametric test is more superior to a non-parametric test since it is used on a relatively large

sample. It has a high probability of helping to reject a false will hypothesis and confirm the

alternative hypothesis.

SUMMARY
Hypothesis is a connectional statement of the expected relationship between two or more
variables. There are two types of hypotheses. They are null hypothesis and alternative
hypothesis.
Null hypothesis are hypothesis that appears to hesitate to indicate the effect of the treatment
on the observed outcome. Null hypothesis are often represented with Ho. While alternative
hypothesis shows the degree and director of the relationship among two or more variables as
dictated by the interest of the researcher. It is often represented with Hi. Hypothesis can be
tested using two basic types of tests. These are parametric and Non-parametric tests. What
informs the type of test to adopt is the nature of data collected which could be norminal,
ordinal, interval or ration. The use of a parametric test is based on the assumption that the
groups are randomly selected from the target population – the data to be analyzed are
measured on interval or ratio scales and the population are normally distributed.

Post-Test

 State the basic differences that exist between null and alternative hypotheses?
  Give an example of a non-parametric test and a parametric test.

References

Fagbohungbe O. B (1996) Research Methods for Tertiary Institutions. Lagos: KOLE consults.

McBurney D.H. & White T.L. (2004) Research Methods. Wadsworth Thomson.

Osuala,E.C.(1987) Introduction to Research Methodology. Onitsha: Africana-Fep.

William J.R. (2003) Methods: Towards a Science of Behaviour. Wadsworth Thomson.

CHAPTER NINE

RESEARCH DESIGNS

INTRODUCTION

The process of conceptualizing the research problem and then pitting it into a structural

perspective that will guide in data collection and analysis is regarded as the research design.

Research design is like the process of constructing a building, the builder do not just commence

the building the structure because he or she has the necessary materials. The builder considers the

building design or plan and the foundation. Research design is the master plan specifying the

method and procedures for collecting and analyzing needed information (Zikmund, 1994). This is

necessary because it ensures that the information collected are right and appropriate for solving the

problem. Research designs has two major purposes under which other purposes aligns. These are

(1) To provide answers to research questions and (2) to control variance by helping the researcher

to control the experimental, extraneous and error variances. There are different types of design,

which includes, one group design, before and after one-group design, two group design and four

group design.

Objective

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to understand the different types of designs, when

they are applied in the course of a research and also give examples.
Pre-Test

 What is research design?

 Explain and give examples of the different types of design?

CONTENT

In research designs certain symbols are identified and used (Kerlinger, 1964). Figure X is assigned

as the experimental manipulation of the independent variables which can have values. Thus the

value of X`ranges from Xi – n. This symbol means that the independent variable is not

manipulated or under the control of the experimental. The dependent variable is represented with

Y which can have the subscript a and b. Ya means before manipulation of X and Yb measure after

the manipulation of X. Some variables cannot be manipulated. Therefore –X is used to represent

such variables while X can be manipulated but not manipulated. Symbol Y is used for the random

assignment of subjects to experimental groups.

One-Group Posttest – Only Design

In this type of design, the researcher is interested in the influence of his experimental manipulation

on the dependent variable. The group of subjects is given a treatment and then tested on some

dependent variable. Therefore, we cannot be too certain that it was the manipulation that brought

about the observed change.

XY (experimental)

Y (observed)
For example, suppose you wanted to test the effectiveness of one of the motivational programmes

in which people attend a retreat during which they engage in several group activities, some of
whom are humiliating and exhausting. To evaluate the effect of the training, you decided to survey

the participants. You find out that most of the participants say that the experience was worthwhile

and that they feel better about themselves than they did before the training. You had no measure of

how they felt before the training. Therefore you cannot say the current result is exclusively as a

result of the training. The research design adopted is one -group design. Another way of doing this

type of research is for the researcher to use a questionnaire on attitude change to find out the

remote cause for the change. However, this is a faulty scientific research and as such not a very

good research design. Nonetheless, some research problems can only be solved using this type of

research.

Before and After One-Group Design (Pretest-Posttest)

This is an improvement of the one-group post test only design. In this type of research design, the

researcher measures the dependent variable before introducing the experimental treatment. This is

to confirm if the observed change is as a result of the treatment or not. In the example of the

motivational retreat study, the participants responses are measured before they attend the retreat

and after the\retreat. The two responses are compared after the retreat. As good as this approach

might seem, we however, might find it difficult to concretely say which part of the retreat actually

brought about the observed behavioral change.

Two-Group Design

An improvement on the before-and-after one group design is to have two groups of participants

randomly allocated to control and treatment groups. One group will be exposed to the motivation

retreat (treatment) while the second group (control) will not. The measure of the two groups are

compared to confirm the efficiency of the treatment (X). However, a limitation to this design is
that the two groups may not have been matched on other possible factors that may jointly account

for the observed differences.

X Y1 ---------------------------------Y2

Y1 …………………… Y2

Four –Design

The four–group research design is another research design that was made popular by Solomon

s(1940). In this design, there are four groups where two groups are exposed to two levels of a

treatment and the other two groups are the control groups which are not given the treatment.

Ya X Yb (experimental)
----------------------------
Ya - Yb (Control)
R ---------------------------
X Yb (Control 2)
-----------------------------
- Yb (control 3)

In the above design, there are two prêt-test measures taken, one on the experiment group and the

other on the control group 1 for the purpose of confirming the experimental treatment. The

advantage however is in the fact that it is possible that the subjects have a carry- over of the pre-test

as both groups were pre-tested. Io eliminate such criticism, two other forms of control groups were

introduced. Control2 has the subjects exposed to the treatment without been measured first before

the actual measurement. While control three did not experience both the treatment and the pre-test

measure. In such an experiment, any observed change or difference can be attributed to the
treatment effect since all other plausible explanation has been taken care of. If the mean score of

the experimental group is higher than the first control group on the dependent measure, it could be

due to the sensitization to the pre-test. We then have the opportunity of comparing the (group

which has been exposed to the treatment without pre-test) to confirm if could confidently attribute

the difference in the dependent variable to the treatment effect. This design though an expensive

one but it provides the advantages of greater precision from pre-test scores as baseline against

which to confirm the effect of the treatment and simultaneously removing interference from

pre-testing effects.

Research designs have two major purposes under which other purpose aligns. These are to
provide answers to research questions and to control variance by helping the researcher to
control the experimental, extraneous and error variances. Types of design includes, one
group design, before and after one-group design, two group design and four group design.

One group design in this type of design, the researcher is interested in the influence of his
experimental manipulation on the dependent variable.

Before and After One-Group Design (Pretest-Posttest). The researcher measures the
dependent variable before introducing the experimental treatment.

Two-Group Design In this type of design, one group will be exposed to the motivation
retreat (treatment) while the second group (control) will not. The measure of the two groups
are compared to confirm the efficiency of the treatment (X). The limitation to this design is
that the two groups may not have been matched on other possible factors that may jointly
account for the observed differences. In the Four group design, there are four groups where
two groups are exposed to two levels of a treatment and the other two groups are the control
groups which are not given the treatment.
SUMMARY

POST-TEST

 Explain each of the following; One group design, before –and- after one group design, two
 group design and four group design.

 What are the limitations of the research designs listed above?

References

Balogun S.K.(1999): Research Methods in Psychology. Psychology: Perspectives in Human

Behaviour. Revised and Enlarged Edition. Kraft Books limited. Pg. 30-56
McBurney D.H. & White T.L. (2004) Research Methods. Wadsworth Thomson.

William J.R. (2003) Methods: Towards a Science of Behaviour. Wadsworth Thomson.

CHAPTER TEN

RESEARCH ETHICS

INTRODUCTION

The concern for ethics in psychology research can be regarded as part of the historical trend

in civil and human rights. Before World War II research ethics was merely regarded as the

concern of the researcher. However the Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals led to the

consciousness of the need for ethical controls in scientific researches. Some practices that

were considered acceptable and routine a few years ago are considered unethical today.

The American Psychological Association (APA) frequently develop ethical principles that

Psychologists need to adopt as code of conducts that must guide research procedures. The

ethical principles addressed by APA covers all the professional activities that

Psychologists engage in. However for the purpose of our lecture, only a few research ethics

will be considered. This includes informed consent, privacy and freedom from coercion,

deception, debriefing, fraud in research and animal experimentation.

 PRE-TEST

 What is research ethics?

 Why is ethical considerations necessary in research?

 Explain different types of ethical consideration a researcher must put into consideration

during a research procedure.

CONTENT.

The APA ethical code represents the consensus of the psychology profession about what is

considered as appropriate practices governing research conducts. The decision to conduct research

often present a conflict between two sets of values which are a conflict between (1) the

commitment of the psychologist to expanding our knowledge of the behaviour and the potential

benefit the research may have for our society and (2) the cost of the research to the participants. At

such instances the researcher considers themselves responsible for deciding to conduct the

research. Therefore, before embarking on a research the ethical implications are put into

considerations. There are ethical review boards that must necessarily give approval before such

researches are conducted. Issues that are often considered in research ethics include; protection

from harm, informed consent, privacy and freedom from coercion, deception, fraud in research

and animal experimentation.

PROTECTION FROM HARM: In researches it is almost impossible to avoid risks of harms.

This is because any new situation carries its attendant stress. Stress in an experiment may be either
physical or psychological. In judging the acceptability of stress, the researcher must first assess

how stressful the situation is likely to be compared with activities of everyday life. Would people

willingly put themselves into this situation? What special groups must be considered such as heart

patients, epileptics or borderline schizophrenia and so on. The researcher must also consider the

idea that participants may resent being treated merely as an object, even if there are no other likely

direct harm to the person.

INFORMED CONSENT: When Psychologist conduct research or provide assessment or therapy,

counseling or consulting services in persons or via electronic transmission or other forms of

communication, they obtain the informed consent of the individual using languages that is

understandable to the person or persons. When obtaining informed consent the participant is told

about (1) the purpose of the research, duration and procedures. (2) their right to decline to

participate or withdraw from the research once participation has begun, (3) the foreseeable

consequences of declining or withdrawing (4) reasonably foreseeable factors that may be that may

be expected to influence their willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort or

adverse effect,(5) prospective research benefits (6) limits of confidentiality (7) incentives for

participating.

This is related to the question of civil rights and the right to privacy specifically. It is with a view

that people has right not to be disturbed as well as the right not to reveal certain information about

themselves. Although psychologist respects this to privacy; it must be balanced against the welfare

of society as a whole. The experimenter should always remember that the participants are doing a

favour by taking part. The freedom to refuse to participant or to withdraw at any time without

penalty should be made clear to the participants at the beginning of the research. For instance,

when students are used in an experiment, APA guidelines require departments to alleviate the
problem of coercion by allowing students extra credits for participation or by providing alternative

means of satisfying the requirements. Issues of coercion becomes more serious if substantial sums

of money are offered for participation or if people are in need to participate with promises to

improve your relations with the opposite sex or gain valuable insights into your personality.

Deception

The term “deception” covers a wide range of action by explanation sometimes deceptions

routinely involves setting up false expectations of the process under investigation in the research

process. For instance, when participants are given false feedbacks about their performance on a

task. Some researchers have shown that the initial false feedback may be believed even after a

debriefing research purpose explained and misconception removed. Deception that present

subjects with a negative evaluation of themselves should be avoided or prevented.

Fraud on Research

In science fraud occurs as in all other human activities. Honesty is not a unitary trait. In other

words in any human endeavour there are always fraudulent people. For the truthfulness of data, we

often depend on the scientist’s honesty. Nonetheless, in the face of a desire or push for popularity

and success in their experiments some researchers falsify their data to be in line with their expected

or anticipated outcomes. In some cases it could be as a result of impatience, laziness or other

ulterior motives, yet fraudulent practices does occur in some scientific researches. This is quite

unethical and must be discouraged.

Ethics and Animal Experimentation

Researches involving animal participation are not taken lightly. There are strong expectations that

the results of an experiment involving animals will yield results that increase scientific knowledge

of people or the species involved in the research. Pains to animal should be minimal in an

experiment and such researches should be carried out by trained personnel under the supervision

of an animal care institution or committee. Animals involved in experimentation should be treated

with humane consideration of their well-being.

SUMMARY

The Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals led to the consciousness of the need for ethical
controls in scientific researches. The experimenter should always remember that the participants
are doing a favour by taking part. The freedom to refuse to participant or to withdraw at any time
without penalty should be made clear to the participants at the beginning of the research. Issues of
coercion should be avoided for instance, offering of substantial sums of money for participation. In
the face of a desire or push for popularity and success in their experiments some researchers falsify
their data to be in line with their expected or anticipated outcomes. Pains to animal should be
minimal in an experiment and such researches should be carried out by trained personnel under the
supervision of an animal care institution or committee.
Post-Test.

 Explain the circumstances that led to the adoption of ethical considerations in

psychological researches.

 Briefly explain the importance of each of these ethical considerations in psychological

researches: protection from harm, informed consent, privacy and freedom from coercion,

deception, fraud in research and animal experimentation.

References

McBurney D.H. & White T.L. (2004) Research Methods. Wadsworth Thomson.

William J.R. (2003) Methods: Towards a Science of Behaviour. Wadsworth Thomson.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

Writing a Research Proposal in Psychology

Introduction

As part of the requirements for the award of a degree or certificate in psychology, it is

mandatory that students write a thesis. In writing a thesis, it is imperative that students

write a proposal. The proposal gives a step by step process of how the study will be
 conducted from the chosen topic to the methods that will be adopted during the research.

This process actually involves relevant areas apart from the analysis and explanation of the

result that will be generated during the conduct of the research.

Objectives

It expected that at the end of this lecture students should be able to confidently identify a

research area, state the likely problems inherent in the area of interest and write a

comprehensive proposal on the chosen.

Pre-Test

 Give a vivid explanation of the necessary process involve in the conduct of a research.

 What are the ways of identifying problems in a research?

 Identify a research topic and state the relationship that exist among the variables.

Content

Before embarking on a research, the student should spend sometime doing literature search in

specific area of interest. Usually, to identify an area of interest it frequently advised that students

consider issues within their environment. This sometimes serves as a lead to viable research
interest. Environment involves not only physical environment but social, economic, religious,

place of work, and other related issues. This becomes imperative as most students waste a lot of

time trying to identify specific areas to research or picking a research topic. It is important to note

that there is no area that has not been previously researched into. In other words there is someone

somewhere who has done some things related to what you about doing.

In the process of doing literature search, you get the direction of thinking or arguments as to how

the variables of interest are related. Literature search assist you to properly situate which of your

variables will be the dependent variables and the independent variables. You are also exposed to

other variables that could mediate or intervene between the identified variables. It is through the

literature that you can generate research problems or form your conceptual relationship with which

you can go to the field. Literature review help to critically examine past works that are relevant to

the subject area of interest. The basic objective here is to harmonize different views together and

sharpen your own focus. In the process of literature search, the researcher is exposed to theories

that explain events as they are or should be. Other things to consider during literature search are to

consider areas that are similar to the area of interest. It is often a good idea to think of all the

alternative search terms you could use. For example, if you want to find out what literature there is

on people over the age of 65 years with depression you could use the following:

 Older adults and mental health difficulties

 Old people with depression and anxiety

 Ageing and mental health

 Age and depression/anxiety

By exploring several different search terms, you can ensure that you have performed a full and

wide search of your subject.

Another important area in the conduct of research is identifying problem areas which is otherwise

called the statement of research problems. These lead us to the statement of research questions. It

is this aspect to indicate the contribution of the researcher to existing literature in the specific area.

The key to thinking of a good research question is reading! By reading and understanding the

research area, you will soon begin to identify gaps in the research. These gaps may be areas that

have not had much work done on them. So, using the previous example, an area that might be

under-researched may be anxiety and depression in older adults living in care homes, for example.

Once gaps have been identified, you can perform another literature search to see how much

material there is in this area and hopefully you will have a much clearer idea of your question! This

will also assist you to adequately state the goal of the research and other specific objectives. A

clear understanding of the specific objectives help the researcher state meaningful hypotheses that

stems from a properly literature in the research area.

Once you have decided on a question, you will need to start thinking of how to investigate it. You

will need to think about the following points:

 What will your method be? This also involves the design of the study.

 How many participants will you use?

 What measures (scales of measurement) will you use?

 What will the inclusion and exclusion criteria be for participants?

 Will the data be analyzed using quantitative or qualitative methods?

  Ethical considerations.

As part of a robust proposal, relevant theories to be used in the study must also be stated coupled

with the statistical analysis that will be used to analyze that hypotheses generated in the research.

In this lecture, you have learnt about the various steps involved in research proposal writing.
Among the areas considered includes the process involved in the choosing of topics or research
area. Once an area as been identified the next important thing to do is literature search. Literature
search assist you to properly situate which of your variables will be the dependent variables and
the independent variables. You are also exposed to other variables that could mediate or intervene
between the identified variables. It is through the literature that you can generate research
problems or form your conceptual relationship with which you can go to the field. Another
important area in the conduct of research is identifying problem areas which is otherwise called the
statement of research problems. These lead us to the statement of research questions. Other aspects
to consider in a research proposal include the methods, the participants, scales, methods to adopt
for the data analysis.

SUMMARY
Post-Test

 Identify a research topic.

 Write a research proposal on the identified topic.

References

Balogun S.K.(1999): Research Methods in Psychology. Psychology: Perspectives in Human

Behaviour. Revised and Enlarged Edition. Kraft Books limited. Pg. 30-56
McBurney D.H. & White T.L. (2004) Research Methods. Wadsworth Thomson.

William J.R. (2003) Methods: Towards a Science of Behaviour. Wadsworth Thomson.