MODULE 1 — EXAM NOTES

Measurements & Controls of Energy Systems

Dr. Mihir N. Velani | Energy Engineering, Adani University

Quick Reference: Topics Covered

# Topic # Topic
1 Energy Systems — Definition 6 Systems of Measurement
2 Classification of Energy Systems 7 Dimensional Analysis: Accuracy
3 Energy Conservation Laws 8 Dimensional Analysis: Precision
4 Components of Energy Systems 9 Dimensional Analysis: Resolution &
Sensitivity
5 Energy Flow Diagrams (Sankey) 10 Types of Errors
1. Energy Systems — Definition & Classification

1.1 What is an Energy System?

General: Infrastructure for producing, converting, and delivering energy to end-users (e.g., power
grids) OR metabolic pathways generating fuel for bodily functions.

Engineering/Tech: A network of components — sources, conversion technologies, and distribution

— designed to supply energy services like electricity or heat.

1.2 Types of Energy Systems

Energy Type Key Description
Electrical Flow of electric charge — AC/DC, Static/Current electricity.
Thermal Internal energy from molecular motion; transferred via conduction,
convection, radiation.
Chemical Energy stored in chemical bonds — e.g., batteries, fuels (petrol, LPG).
Renewable Naturally replenished sources — Solar, Wind, Hydro, Geothermal,
Biomass.
Hybrid Combines 2+ energy sources (conventional + renewable or multiple
renewables) with storage (batteries) and an energy management
system for better reliability and efficiency.

2. Energy Conservation Laws

First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy of an isolated system remains constant.

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed — only transformed or transferred from one form to
another.

2.1 Conservation in Different System Types

System Type Energy Transfer Matter Transfer
Isolated ✘ No transfer ✘ No transfer — Total energy stays
constant.
Closed ✔ Can transfer ✘ Cannot — Energy stays constant if
only energy exchanges are counted.
Open ✔ Can transfer ✔ Can transfer — Conservation still
applies; account for all flows in/out.
3. Components of Energy Systems
Every energy system has four core components:
Component Description / Examples
Sources Primary: coal, oil, gas, solar, wind, hydro, biomass. Conversion tech: power
(Generation) plants, turbines, solar PV, fuel cells, generators.
Conversion + Electricity: HV transmission lines, substations, transformers. Fuels: pipelines
Transport (gas, oil), tankers (LNG). Heat/Cooling: district heating pipes, steam lines, HTF.
Loads (End-Use) Services: Lighting, cooking, heating/cooling, transport, industrial processes.
Technologies: furnaces, bulbs, automobiles, appliances, machinery.
Storage Batteries, pumped hydro, compressed air, thermal storage, gas storage — to
balance supply and demand.

4. Performance Parameters of Energy Systems

• Efficiency — ratio of useful output energy to total input energy.
• Capacity Factor — actual output vs. maximum possible output over a period.
• Load Factor — average load divided by peak load over a time interval.
• Stack Loss* — heat lost via hot flue gases exiting a boiler or combustion system, energy that could
otherwise have been utilized.
• Specific Fuel Consumption — fuel used per unit of energy/work output.
• Power Factor (Electrical) — ratio of real power to apparent power.

★ Stack Loss (Exam Tip): Occurs when hot flue gases exit a boiler/combustion system, carrying away
heat. Reducing stack loss improves overall system efficiency — common exam application question.

5. Energy Flow Diagrams

5.1 What is an Energy Flow Diagram?

Visually maps how energy enters, transforms, moves through, and leaves a system. Arrows show direction;
varying arrow widths indicate quantity. Used to analyze efficiency, losses, and consumption.

5.2 Types of Energy Flow Diagrams

Block Diagram Sankey Diagram
Simpler, uses boxes and arrows showing Arrow widths are proportional to the quantity of
stages/components. energy flow.
 Good for understanding process steps. Ideal for visualizing losses (waste heat) and
overall efficiency.
Less quantitative — does not show magnitude. Used for national energy grids, boilers, engines,
etc.

5.3 Components of an Energy Flow Diagram

Component Meaning
Energy Sources Starting point — coal, oil, gas, solar, wind, hydro, biomass.
Transformation Conversion process — coal → electricity; sunlight → solar power.
Distribution Transmission via grids or pipelines to reach end-users.
End-Users Homes, industries, businesses, transportation.
Rejected Energy Energy lost as heat or due to inefficiency during
conversion/transmission.

5.4 Core Rules for Sankey Diagrams

• Arrow width ∝ quantity of energy flow at that stage.
• Total input energy = useful output + all losses (arrows must balance).
• Losses are typically shown branching downward or to the side.
• Used by LLNL and IEA for national energy accounting.

5.5 Applications of Energy Flow Diagrams

• Visualization: Clear representation of complex energy relationships.
• Analysis: Identify patterns, inefficiencies, and areas of improvement.
• Communication: Universal language for experts and non-experts alike.

6. Need for Measurements and Controls

Category Why it Matters
Efficiency Reduced waste & energy consumption; optimal performance; predictive
maintenance; consistent product quality.
Safety Hazardous condition monitoring; Emergency Shutdown Systems (ESD);
regulatory compliance.
Automation Reduced human error; continuous operations; advanced data analytics;
operational flexibility.
7. Systems of Measurement
System Base Units / Notes
SI (International System) Meter, kilogram, second, kelvin, ampere, mole, candela. — Global
standard.
US Customary Inches, feet, pounds, gallons. — Used in USA for everyday and some
engineering.
British Imperial Inches, feet, pounds, gallons — based on historical custom; different
gallon size from US.
CGS System Centimetre, gram, second. — Used in older physics/scientific
literature.

Elements of Engineering Measurements (4 Key):

1. Standards — Essential for consistency (e.g., kg, meter, second); must have precision, clear
definition, and common acceptance.

2. Instruments — Mechanical, electrical, or electronic. Classified as Direct (comparison) or Indirect

(derived) and by function (indicating / recording).

3. Errors — Understanding Gross, Systematic, and Random errors is vital for accuracy.

4. Static vs. Dynamic Conditions — Measuring steady (static) conditions vs. time-varying (dynamic)
conditions.

8. Dimensional Analysis — Measurement Parameters

8.1 Accuracy
Definition: How close a measurement is to the true or accepted value.
Example: True voltage = 100 V. Voltmeter reads 99.8 V → high accuracy.
Accuracy Class: A number (e.g., 1.5) indicating the instrument's max error is ±1.5% of full-scale
reading.

Lower accuracy class number = better accuracy (e.g., Class 0.5 is better than Class 1.5).

8.2 Precision
Definition: How close repeated measurements are to each other (repeatability / consistency). Independent of
closeness to true value.
Example: Five readings of 100 V source: 98.2, 98.3, 98.2, 98.3, 98.2 V → high precision but low accuracy (true =
100 V).
 Key Distinction: High precision + low accuracy = systematic offset. High accuracy + low precision =
random scatter. Ideal = both high.

8.3 Accuracy vs. Precision — Quick Comparison

Accuracy Precision
Closeness to the TRUE value. Closeness of repeated readings to EACH OTHER.
Can be high even if precision is low. Can be high even if accuracy is low.
Affected by systematic error. Affected by random error.
Example: 99.8 V for true 100 V source. Example: 98.2, 98.3, 98.2 V — tightly clustered.

8.4 Resolution
Definition: The smallest increment an instrument can detect or display.
Example: A digital multimeter displaying voltage to 0.01 V resolution can detect changes as small as 0.01 V.

Least Count vs. Resolution (Common Exam Confusion)

Parameter Least Count Resolution
Applies to Analog instruments (e.g., ruler) Digital or complex instruments
Meaning Smallest graduation on an analog Minimum detectable change in
scale (e.g., 1 mm on ruler) output
Scope Narrower, scale-specific Broader, used for any system
Relation They are nearly synonymous Higher res = smaller detectable
change = more precise

8.5 Sensitivity
Definition: Ratio of output change to input change.
Formula: Sensitivity = ΔOutput / ΔInput
Example (Thermocouple):
• TC1: 10 mV/°C → 1°C rise gives 10 mV output change.
• TC2: 1 mV/°C → 1°C rise gives 1 mV output change.
• TC1 is MORE sensitive (larger output per unit input change).
Rule: Higher sensitivity value = instrument responds more to smaller input changes = preferred for
detecting fine variations.
9. Types of Errors in Measurements
Error Type Description Example
Systematic Consistent, reproducible error in one Voltmeter always reading 2V lower
direction. Sub-types: Instrument Error, due to calibration fault.
Environmental Error, Observational Error.
— Instrument Error due to fault or miscalibration of the Worn-out spring in an analog
Error instrument itself. meter.
— Error caused by external conditions Geiger counter affected by
Environmental affecting the instrument (temp, humidity, background radiation — 1 rad =
Error radiation). 0.01 Gy.
— Observational Error due to how the observer reads the Reading a meter at an angle
Error instrument (parallax, misreading scale). (parallax error).
Random Unpredictable, fluctuating — caused by Multiple readings of same quantity
inherent limitations, observer varying slightly each time.
interpretation, or environmental noise.
Readings scatter around the true value.
Gross Human mistakes — misreading, incorrect Recording 10.0 V when true reading
setup, or data entry errors. Non- was 100 V (decimal error).
consistent, hard to identify, can occur in
any direction.

Quick Memory Aid — Errors:

Gross = Glaring human mistake (hardest to catch, inconsistent)

Systematic = Same direction every time (fixable once identified)

Random = Random scatter around true value (minimized by averaging)

10. Instrument Symbols on Analog Instruments

Symbol / Marking Meaning
PMMC Permanent Magnet Moving Coil — used for DC measurements only.
Moving Iron Can be used for both AC and DC supply.
Accuracy Class 1.0 Measurement error is within ±1.0% of full-scale reading.
2000 V (insulation) Instrument's insulation is rated for 2000 V (safety rating).
Horizontal dial symbol Instrument must be installed horizontally (flat surface).
AC/DC symbol (both) Instrument works on both AC and DC supply.
 ★ EXAM QUICK-FIRE REVISION ★
Q: What is the difference between accuracy and precision?

Accuracy = closeness to true value. Precision = closeness of repeated readings to each other. They
are independent.

Q: Which thermocouple is more sensitive — 10 mV/°C or 1 mV/°C?

10 mV/°C — larger output change per unit input change = more sensitive.

Q: Name the three types of errors.

Gross Error, Systematic Error (Instrument / Environmental / Observational), Random Error.

Q: In a closed system, can energy transfer occur?

Yes — energy can transfer, but matter cannot cross the boundary.

Q: What does arrow width represent in a Sankey diagram?

Quantity (magnitude) of energy flow at that stage.

Q: What is stack loss?

Heat carried away by hot flue gases exiting a boiler/combustion system — an energy loss that
reduces efficiency.

Q: What is sensitivity formula?

Sensitivity = ΔOutput / ΔInput. Units depend on measurand (e.g., mV/°C for a thermocouple).

Q: What is Accuracy Class 1.5 on an instrument?

The instrument's error is within ±1.5% of the full-scale reading.

Q: Difference between least count and resolution?

Least count = smallest graduation on an analog scale. Resolution = smallest detectable change (used
broadly for digital/complex instruments). Nearly synonymous; both indicate precision limits.

Q: What are the four components of an energy system?

Sources (Generation), Conversion + Transportation, Loads (End-Use), Storage.

— End of Module 1 Notes —