Week 10: Intelligence

Introduction to Psychology | Spring 2026 | Study Notes

What is Intelligence?

Intelligence is defined by Wechsler (1939) as "the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to
act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment."
In simple terms — intelligence is not just one thing. It covers how well you reason, solve problems,
adapt to new situations, and interact with the world around you.

IQ Tests

IQ (Intelligence Quotient) was first used by William Stern. It is calculated as:

IQ = (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100
Mental age refers to the intellectual ability expected of a person of a given age. If your mental age
matches your actual age, your IQ is 100 — the average.

• Achievement tests — measure what you have already learned

• Aptitude tests — measure your potential to learn new skills
e.g. University exams are achievement tests. IQ tests are aptitude tests.

IQ tests are generally considered reliable (consistent results) and valid (measuring what they claim
to). However, factors like anxiety or low motivation can affect scores.

History of Intelligence Testing

Francis Galton Believed intelligence was inherited. Attempted to measure it through head
(1822–1911) size, reaction time, and muscular power. Coined the term "eugenics"
(selective breeding) and "nature vs nurture."

Alfred Binet Created the first IQ test in 1905 with Théodore Simon, commissioned by
(1857–1911) the French government to identify children needing extra help. Later revised
by Lewis Terman as the Stanford-Binet test (1916).

Charles Spearman Proposed the two-factor theory: a G factor (general intelligence that
(1863–1945) predicts overall performance) and an S factor (specific abilities).
Developed factor analysis to study these.

Louis Thurstone Challenged Spearman and identified 7 primary mental abilities: word
(1887–1955) fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical
ability, inductive reasoning, and memory.
Raymond Cattell Fluid intelligence — processing new information and reasoning
(1905–1998) independently of experience (what IQ tests measure). Crystallised
intelligence — using stored knowledge from past experience (what
knowledge tests measure).

David Wechsler Created the most widely used intelligence tests: the WAIS (Wechsler Adult
(1896–1981) Intelligence Scale) and WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children).
The WAIS-IV measures Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning,
Working Memory, and Processing Speed.

Contemporary Theories of Intelligence

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences (1983)

Gardner argued that there is no single intelligence — instead, there are 8 independent
intelligences, each helping us in different areas of life. A person can be strong in some and weaker
in others.

Linguistic Skill with language — reading, writing, speaking

Logico-mathematical Logical reasoning and numerical ability

Musical Sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, and melody

Spatial Ability to visualise and mentally manipulate objects

Bodily-kinaesthetic Control of body movements and physical skills

Naturalist Recognising and categorising natural objects and patterns

Interpersonal Understanding and relating to other people

Intrapersonal Self-awareness and understanding of one's own emotions and

motivations

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

Sternberg agreed with Gardner that intelligence is not a single thing. He proposed three
components:
• Analytical — ability to analyse, evaluate, and solve problems logically (academic intelligence)
• Practical — ability to apply knowledge to everyday situations; "street smarts"
• Creative — ability to generate new ideas and adapt to novel situations

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

Popularised by Daniel Goleman (1995). Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognise,
understand, and manage emotions — in yourself and in others.
 Mayer & Salovey's Four Branch Model (1997):

Perceiving Emotions Accurately reading and expressing emotions in yourself and others

Using Emotions Generating and accessing emotions to assist thinking and

problem-solving

Understanding Emotions Understanding how emotions evolve, combine, and transition

Managing Emotions Regulating your own emotions and influencing the emotions of others

Goleman's 5 Components:
• Self-awareness — knowing your own emotions and their impact
• Self-regulation — managing your emotions and impulses
• Motivation — being driven by internal goals rather than external rewards
• Empathy — understanding and sharing the feelings of others
• Social skills — managing relationships and influencing others effectively
e.g. Captain Sullenberger (Hudson Bay Crash, 2009) — landed a plane on water after engine failure
with zero casualties. His calm self-awareness and self-regulation under extreme pressure is a
real-world example of high EI.

Genetics, Environment and Intelligence

Nature vs Nurture in Intelligence

Heritability refers to how much of the variation in intelligence scores across a population is due to
genetic factors. It does not mean a fixed percentage of an individual's intelligence is genetic — it is a
population-level statistic.

Twin Studies
Compare IQ scores of identical twins (MZ — 100% shared genes) vs fraternal twins (DZ — ~50%
shared genes), both raised together and apart. If identical twins have more similar IQs even when
raised apart, genetics play a strong role.

Adoption Studies
Compare adopted children's IQ scores with those of their biological parents, adoptive parents, and
adoptive siblings. Helps separate the influence of genes from environment.

Cultural Differences in IQ Scores

Studies in the US found that minority groups scored lower on IQ tests than White individuals on
average. Arthur Jensen (1969) controversially attributed this to genetic differences between races.
This view was widely criticised because it ignored the role of socioeconomic factors, access to
education, systemic inequality, cultural bias in tests, and stereotype threat. The Bell Curve
(Hernstein & Murray, 1994) extended this controversy.

The Flynn Effect

 A worldwide increase in average IQ scores across the 20th century — each generation scores
higher than the last. This cannot be explained by genetics alone (genes don't change that fast),
pointing strongly to environmental improvements such as better nutrition, education, healthcare, and
exposure to complex problem-solving.

Extremes of Intelligence

The Normal Distribution of IQ

IQ scores follow a bell curve — most people score around the average (100). The extremes are
intellectual disability (low end) and giftedness (high end).

Intellectual Disability

Also called Intellectual Developmental Disorder. Characterised by deficits in both intellectual

functioning (IQ ≤ 70) and adaptive functioning (everyday conceptual, social, and practical skills).

Four levels (DSM-5): Mild, Moderate, Severe, Profound

Risk Factors:
• Genetic/chromosomal — Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21), Fragile X, PKU, Tay-Sachs
• Pre/peri/post-natal — disease or toxin exposure, maternal malnutrition or substance use, birth
complications, head injury
• Psychosocial — deprivation, abuse, neglect

Giftedness

Refers to performing at significantly higher levels than peers. Generally defined as an IQ above 130,
often combined with exceptional skill in a specific area.

Savant Syndrome

A rare condition where a person has exceptional ability in one specific area (e.g. mathematical
calculation, memory, music) but significant impairment in other areas. May occur alongside Autism
Spectrum Disorder.
e.g. Kim Peek (1951–2009) — exceptional memorisation abilities (could recall thousands of books)
but had difficulty with motor tasks and daily living skills.

Quick Summary

Topic Key Point

Intelligence (Wechsler) Global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, deal with the
environment
IQ Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age × 100; average is 100

Achievement vs Aptitude Achievement = what you've learned; Aptitude = potential to learn

Galton Intelligence is inherited; coined eugenics and nature vs nurture

Binet First IQ test (1905) to identify children needing extra support

Spearman G factor (general) + S factor (specific abilities)

Thurstone 7 primary mental abilities — no single general intelligence

Cattell Fluid intelligence (new reasoning) vs Crystallised intelligence (stored

knowledge)

Wechsler WAIS and WISC — most widely used IQ tests today

Gardner 8 multiple intelligences — linguistic, logical, musical, spatial,

kinaesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, intrapersonal

Sternberg Triarchic theory — Analytical, Practical, Creative

Emotional Intelligence Mayer & Salovey: Perceive, Use, Understand, Manage emotions.
Goleman: Self-awareness, Self-regulation, Motivation, Empathy,
Social skills

Heritability How much intelligence variation is due to genetics in a population

Flynn Effect Global rise in IQ scores each generation — suggests strong

environmental influence

Intellectual Disability IQ ≤ 70 + deficits in adaptive functioning; four levels (DSM-5)

Giftedness IQ above 130; superior skill or ability

Savant Syndrome Exceptional ability in one area, impairment in others; may co-occur
with ASD

Based on: Wechsler (1939), Binet & Simon (1905), Gardner (1983), Sternberg, Goleman (1995), Mayer & Salovey (1997),
DSM-5