1. Endocrine System 2.

Female Reproductive
The endocrine system is a group of glands that
Cycle
release hormones directly into the bloodstream
to regulate body processes such as growth, The menstrual cycle prepares the female body for
metabolism, reproduction, and response to stress. pregnancy and typically lasts 28 days.

Major Endocrine Glands and Functions Phases of the Menstrual Cycle

Pituitary Gland Menstrual Phase (Days 1–5/6)

• Known as the master gland • The uterine lining sheds, causing

• Controls other endocrine glands menstrual bleeding.
• Produces Growth Hormone (GH) which
regulates body growth Follicular Phase (Days 6–13)

Thyroid Gland • FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone)

stimulates egg development.
• Located in the neck • Estrogen levels increase and the
• Produces thyroxine, which regulates endometrium begins to thicken.
metabolism
• Iodine deficiency can cause enlargement Ovulation (Around Day 14)
of the thyroid called goiter
• Triggered by a surge of Luteinizing
Adrenal Glands Hormone (LH).
• The ovary releases an egg cell.
• Located above the kidneys
• Produce adrenaline (epinephrine) Luteal Phase (Days 15–28)
• Adrenaline prepares the body for fight-or-
flight response during stress • Progesterone increases to maintain the
uterine lining for possible pregnancy.
Pancreas
Important Hormones
• Produces insulin and glucagon
• Regulates blood sugar levels FSH

Hormonal Disorders • Stimulates egg development in the ovary

Dwarfism LH

• Caused by low growth hormone • Triggers ovulation

production
• Results in short stature Estrogen

Gigantism • Thickens the uterine lining

• Caused by excess growth hormone Progesterone

• Results in abnormally tall growth
• Maintains the uterine lining and inhibits
FSH and LH

If the egg is not fertilized, hormone levels drop

and menstruation occurs.

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3. Feedback Mechanisms Parasympathetic Nervous System

• Responsible for rest and relaxation

The body maintains balance using feedback • Slows heart rate and increases digestion
systems.

Positive Feedback

• The response amplifies or increases the 5. Neuron Structure

original stimulus.
A neuron is the basic unit of the nervous system.
Examples:
Parts of a Neuron
• Childbirth
• Blood clotting

Negative Feedback

• The response counteracts the stimulus to

maintain balance. Dendrites
Examples: • Receive signals from other neurons
• Regulation of body temperature Cell Body (Soma)
• Hormone regulation
• Contains the nucleus
• Processes information

4. Nervous System Axon

The nervous system controls and coordinates • Transmits impulses away from the cell
body activities and responses to stimuli. body

Major Parts of the Brain Myelin Sheath

• Insulates the axon

Cerebrum
• Speeds up nerve impulse transmission
• Responsible for thinking, memory, and
voluntary actions

Cerebellum 6. Central Dogma of

• Controls balance and coordination Molecular Biology
Brainstem
The central dogma explains how genetic
information flows in cells:
• Controls involuntary functions such as
breathing and heartbeat
DNA → RNA → Protein
Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous
Key Processes
System
Transcription
Sympathetic Nervous System
• DNA is copied to form messenger RNA
• Activates fight or flight response (mRNA)
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Translation Messenger RNA attaches to the small ribosomal
subunit, with its first codon in the correct site, thus
• mRNA is read by ribosomes attracting a tRNA molecule to attach to the codon.
• tRNA brings amino acids This signals to the large subunit that it should now
• Amino acids join to form a protein bind to the protein synthesis machinery, and
translation can begin.
Important Terms

Codon

• A sequence of three bases in mRNA

7. DNA Base Pairing
• Codes for an amino acid
DNA bases follow complementary pairing
rules:
Anticodon

• A sequence of three bases in tRNA Base Pairs With

• Matches the codon Adenine (A) Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C) Guanine (G)
Start Codon
In RNA:
• AUG signals the beginning of protein
synthesis
• Uracil (U) replaces thymine.

Base Types
Order of events in protein synthesis is:
Purines
1. DNA serves as a template to produce
RNA. • Adenine
o This is transcription, where • Guanine
mRNA is made from DNA in the
nucleus. Pyrimidines
2. RNA exits from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm. • Cytosine
o The newly formed mRNA leaves • Thymine
the nucleus and moves to the • Uracil
ribosome.
3. Messenger RNA attaches to a ribosome.
o The ribosome binds to the mRNA
to begin translation.
4. Transfer RNA bonds to a specific 8. Mutations
codon.
o tRNA matches its anticodon with A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence.
the codon on mRNA and brings
the correct amino acid. Types of Gene Mutations
5. Amino acids are bonded together.
o The ribosome links amino acids to Insertion
form a polypeptide (protein).
• Extra base added
Correct sequence of events that must occur for
translation to begin: Deletion

• Base removed

Substitution (Point Mutation)

• One base replaced by another

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Frameshift Mutation Homologous Structures

• Caused by insertion or deletion • Similar structures with different functions

• Alters the reading frame of codons • Indicate common ancestry

Examples:

• Human arm – Whale flipper – Bat wing

9. Chromosomal Mutations
• Same bone structure (humerus, radius,
Changes in chromosome structure include: ulna)
• Different functions:
Deletion • Human → grasping
• Whale → swimming
• Loss of chromosome segment • Bat → flying
Duplication • Cat forelimb – Whale flipper
• Repetition of chromosome segment • Same skeletal structure
• Cat → walking/running
Insertion • Whale → swimming
• Segment added
• Bird wing – Human arm
Translocation
• Same underlying bones
• Bird → flying
• Segment transferred to another
• Human → lifting/manipulating objects
chromosome
• Horse leg – Human arm
Example Genetic Conditions
• Similar bone pattern
Down Syndrome • Different functions (running vs
manipulating)
• Extra chromosome 21
Analogous Structures

• Similar functions but different origins

Examples

1. Butterfly wing – Bird wing

o Same function: flying
o Different structures and origins
2. Bat wing – Insect wing
o Both used for flight
o Bat wing → modified mammal
forelimb
10. Evolution o Insect wing → thin membrane
structure
Evolution is the change in species over time. 3. Fish fins – Whale flippers
o Same function: swimming
o Different anatomical origins
Evidence of Evolution
4. Octopus eye – Human eye
o Same function: vision
Fossils
o Different evolutionary origin
• Remains of organisms preserved in rock
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Lamarck's Theory 13. Population and
Lamarck proposed: Carrying Capacity
Use and Disuse Carrying capacity

• Body parts used often become stronger • Maximum population size an environment
• Unused parts weaken can support.

Example: If population exceeds carrying capacity:

1. Giraffes’ Long Necks • Resources become insufficient

o Theory application: Ancestors of • Death rate may increase
giraffes stretched their necks to • Population eventually decreases
reach higher leaves. Over
generations, this “acquired” longer Limiting Factors
neck trait was passed to their
offspring. Conditions that restrict population growth.
Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics Density-dependent factors
• Traits developed during life are passed to • Disease
offspring • Competition
• Famine
• Predation

11. Fossils and Geologic Density-independent factors

Time • Natural disasters

• Extreme weather
Fossils are most commonly found in sedimentary
rocks.

The oldest fossils are from the Precambrian era,

which represents the earliest period of Earth's
14. Environmental
history. Conservation
Earth Day

12. Biodiversity Celebrated every April 22 to promote

environmental protection.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life in an
ecosystem. Ways to Reduce Environmental Impact

Importance of Biodiversity Students can help by:

• Increases ecosystem stability • Planting trees

• Helps ecosystems adapt to • Reducing paper use
environmental changes • Supporting sustainable products
• Improves productivity and efficiency • Proper waste segregation
• Recycling
Low biodiversity makes ecosystems more • Protecting forests
vulnerable to disturbances.
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Example Environmental Solution

To reduce coastal environmental damage:

• Restore mangroves
• Improve waste management
• Regulate fishing practices