SLOPE FAILURE

& LANDSLIDES
MACARAYAN CORSELES BERBIGAL LOMOCSO
WHAT ARE
SLOPES?
WHAT ARE SLOPES?
1. The Most Common Landform

Slopes are the fundamental building blocks of

Earth's surface. Whether it is a mountain, a
riverbank, or a backyard hill, almost every
landscape is defined by its inclination.

They exhibit a wide range of inclinations, from

subtle, low-angle rises to vertical precipices.
WHAT ARE SLOPES?
2. A Wide Range of Steepness
Slopes aren't "one size fits all." They exist on a spectrum:

Gentle: Low-angle hills (often stable).

Medium/Moderate: Rolling terrain.
Steep/Vertical: Sheer cliffs and precipices (high failure risk)
WHAT ARE SLOPES?
3. Surface Composition
Slopes are covered by soil, vegetation, or bare rock
Roots act as "biological glue," binding soil together to prevent sliding.

4. Gravity VS Stability
Gravity never stops pulling downward, regardless of
how stable a slope looks.
Every slope eventually tries to move toward a lower,
flatter, and more stable position.
MASS WASTING
WHAT IS MASS WASTING?
Downhill movement of soil, rock, or debris
under gravity.
Landslides are a common type, often
triggered by water, earthquakes, or slope
changes.
Studying mass wasting helps predict and
prevent slope failures.

Mass wasting is the general term process

behind slope failures and landslides.
WHAT IS MASS WASTING?
It can occur slowly, such as soil creep that gradually deforms a slope, or
suddenly, as in landslides and rockfalls.

Slope failure is a specific outcome of mass wasting. It happens when a

slope can no longer resist the forces acting on it, causing part of it to
move downhill.

Mass wasting is the downslope movement of material

under gravity, while erosion gradually removes material
by water, wind, or ice.
SLOPE FAILURE
It is essentially a "loss of balance" where gravity wins the tug-of-war
against the internal strength of the ground.
Failure can range from a few falling rocks to massive landslides that
move entire mountainsides.
The slope changes shape to reach a more stable, flatter position.

Cruden and Varnes (1996) classified the slope failures into the following
five major categories:
TYPES OF SLOPE FAILURES
1. FALL: 2. TOPPLE:
The detachment of soil and/or This is a forward rotation of soil and/or
rock fragments that fall down a rock mass about an axis below the center
slope of gravity of mass being displaced
TYPES OF SLOPE FAILURES
3. SLIDE: 4. SPREAD:
This is the downward movement This is a form of slide by translation. It
of a soil mass occurring on a occurs by “sudden movement of water-
surface of Rupture bearing seams of sands or silts overlain by
clays or loaded by fills”.
TYPES OF SLOPE FAILURES
5. FLOW: This is a downward movement of soil mass similar to a
viscous fluid.
TYPES OF FLOW:
DEBRIS FLOW EARTHFLOW MUDFLOW
TYPES OF FLOW:
DEBRIS FLOW
DEBRIS FLOWS ARE RAPID MASS MOVEMENTS CONSISTING OF A
MIXTURE OF LOOSE SOIL, ROCK FRAGMENTS (GRAVEL-SIZED OR
LARGER), ORGANIC MATTER, AIR, AND WATER

TYPICALLY OCCURS IN STEEP TERRAIN AND FOLLOW WELL-DEFINED

CHANNELS
INTENSE RAINFALL OR RAPID SNOWMELT CAN CAUSE SOIL
SATURATION AND LOSS OF COHESION
THEY ARE POWERFUL ENOUGH TO MOVE LARGE BOULDERS AND
KNOCK OVER TREES
THEY OFTEN LEAVE BEHIND DISTINCTIVE, UPSIDE-DOWN FUNNEL-
SHAPED DEPOSITS
TYPES OF FLOW:
EARTHFLOW
WHEN EARTH MATERIAL MOVES DOWN A HILLSIDE AS A FLUID-LIKE MASS,
IT IS TERMED AN EARTHFLOW

THESE TYPICALLY INVOLVE FINE-GRAINED MATERIALS OR CLAY-

BEARING ROCKS
THEY OFTEN FORM A BOWL OR HOURGLASS-SHAPED DEPRESSION AT
THE HEAD (THE "SCARP")
OFTEN CAUSED BY THE UNDERCUTTING OF THE SLOPE BASE BY
EROSION OR CONSTRUCTION.
THEY CAN RANGE FROM VERY SLOW (MILLIMETERS PER DAY) TO FAST
(METERS PER DAY) AND CAN BE INTERMITTENTLY ACTIVE FOR YEARS
TYPES OF FLOW:
MUDFLOW
MUDFLOWS ARE SIMILAR TO DEBRIS FLOWS BUT ARE PRIMARILY
COMPOSED OF SAND-SIZED OR SMALLER PARTICLES (AT LEAST 50%
SAND, SILT, AND CLAY)

THEY ARE MORE LIQUID-LIKE THAN DEBRIS FLOWS AND CAN MOVE
VERY QUICKLY
HEAVY RAINFALL IN SEMIARID ENVIRONMENTS WITH SPARSE
VEGETATION, OR FOLLOWING FOREST FIRES THAT EXPOSE SOIL TO
RAPID EROSION.
A MUDFLOW OR DEBRIS FLOW ORIGINATING ON THE FLANK OF A
VOLCANO, OFTEN DUE TO RAPID MELTING OF SNOW AND ICE DURING
AN ERUPTION, IS SPECIFICALLY CALLED A LAHAR
*A LAHAR IS AN INDONESIAN TERM SPECIFICALLY USED
TO DESCRIBE HOT OR COLD MIXTURES OF WATER AND
VOLCANIC ROCK FRAGMENTS (PYROCLASTIC DEBRIS)
FLOWING DOWN THE SLOPES OF A VOLCANO
PROGRESSIVE
FAILURE
PROGRESSIVE FAILURE
A gradual slope failure that starts in a weak zone and spreads over time, unlike
sudden failure which occurs abruptly due to strong triggers like earthquakes or
intense rainfall.

Progressive failure begins at a local point and spreads along the potential
sliding surface.

The long-term strength of soils and rocks is often lower than their short-term
strength.

Slope stability must therefore consider long-term conditions.

QUESTION!
MASS WASTING IS THE
DOWNHILL MOVEMENT
OF SOIL, ROCK, OR
DEBRIS UNDER
PRESSURE.
TRUE OR FALSE?
FALSE
UNDER GRAVITY
 AN INDONESIAN TERM
SPECIFICALLY USED TO
DESCRIBE HOT/COLD MIXTURES
OF WATER AND VOLCANIC
ROCK FRAGMENTS FLOWING
DOWN THE SLOPES OF A
VOLCANO
LAHAR
 MAJOR
GEOLOGICAL
FACTORS
1. MATERIAL &
STRUCTURE
Geological structure strongly controls slope
stability. Weak horizons, bedding planes,
joints, and faults may reduce shear strength
and act as potential sliding surfaces.

Folding and shearing can reduce the

strength of rock layers to residual values,
making reactivation likely.
Folding = ductile deformation due to
compressive stress causing bending of rock
layers. (folding can create unfavorable
geometries that reduce slope stability)

Shearing = deformation caused by shear

stress resulting in internal sliding and strength
reduction. (If a slope contains sheared rock, it
is more vulnerable to reactivation, especially
during rainfall or earthquakes)
2. GROUNDWATER & STRESSES
Groundwater affects slope stability by:

• Changing effective stress

• Generating seepage forces
• Acting as an agent of weathering and erosion

When pore spaces become filled with water, effective stress decreases,
resulting in reduced shear strength. This weakening of the material makes
slope failure more likely.
3. DYNAMIC TRIGGERS
Dynamic forces such as earthquakes introduce sudden increases in
shear stress. Seismic shaking may weaken soil structure and, in
saturated soils, cause liquefaction.

Previous landslides, old slip surfaces, and long-term creep can also make
slopes more vulnerable to reactivation.
EARTHQUAKES
Sudden ground movements caused by the
release of stress along faults in the Earth’s
crust.
Shaking can destabilize slopes, weaken soils
and rocks, and trigger landslides.
Loose, saturated, or fractured materials are
especially vulnerable.

Example: The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in

China triggered thousands of landslides in
mountainous areas.
LIQUEFACTION
Saturated, loose soils lose strength and act
like a liquid.
Reduces slope stability, causing landslides or
settlement.
Common in sandy or silty soils with high water
content.

Example: 1964 Niigata earthquake, Japan –

buildings tilted due to liquefaction.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL
DEGRADATION
Weathering gradually breaks down
rock and soil, reducing their strength
over time. As materials weaken, slopes
become more susceptible to failure.

Erosion removes material from the

toe of the slope, reducing support and
increasing instability.
 Removal of vegetation reduces root
reinforcement and increases water
infiltration into the soil.

Without plant cover, slopes lose natural

support, become more prone to erosion,
and are more vulnerable to failure.

One major cause of vegetation removal is wildfires, which

can rapidly eliminate root strength and protective ground
cover, increasing the risk of landslides.
FACTOR OF
SAFETY
FACTOR OF SAFETY
This calculation is used to predict when movement will commence by
comparing available strength with the resistance required to prevent
failure.

Factor of Safety (FOS) = Resisting Forces / Driving Forces

where:
FoS > 1: Slope is stable (resisting forces exceed driving forces).
FoS = 1: Slope is at the point of failure (resisting = driving).
FoS < 1: Slope is unstable (driving forces exceed resisting forces).
QUESTION
IT REMOVES ROOT
REINFORCEMENT
AND INCREASES
INFILTRATION
REMOVAL OF
VEGETATION
QUESTION
 DYNAMIC FORCES
SUCH AS
EARTHQUAKES
INTRODUCE SUDDEN
INCREASES IN ___?
SHEAR STRESS
MOVEMENTS IN
MASS WASTING
CREEP
Extremely slow, gradual movement of soil downslope. Often so slow it’s
only noticeable by tilted trees, bent fences, or gradually shifting roads.

SLUMP
Rotational sliding of a slope along a curved surface. Material moves
downward and outward, often forming a small step or scarp at the top.

SOLIFLUCTION
Slow, downslope flow of water-saturated soil over frozen ground
(permafrost). Often occurs in tundra or high mountain areas, creating lobes
or terraces on gentle slopes.
LANDSLIDES
WHAT IS A LANDSLIDE?
LANDSLIDES ARE THE RESULT OF
GRAVITY-PRODUCED STRESSES
IN EVERY SLOPE. MOVEMENT
OCCURS WHEN THE STRESS
EXCEEDS THE MATERIAL'S
STRENGTH.
 TYPES OF LANDSLIDE
TRANSLATIONAL SLIDE

MECHANISM: MOVEMENT OCCURS ALONG A PLANAR OR

FLAT SURFACE, WITH LITTLE ROTATION OR BACKWARD TILTING

KEY EXAMPLE: THE VAJONT DAM DISASTER IS THE PRIMARY

EXAMPLE OF A CATASTROPHIC TRANSLATIONAL SLIDE WHERE
THE ROCK MASS SLID ALONG EXISTING GEOLOGICAL
SURFACES
.
TRIGGER: HIGH PORE-WATER PRESSURE TYPICALLY ACTS AS
THE "LUBRICANT" FOR THIS SPECIFIC SLIDE TYPE.
 TYPES OF LANDSLIDE
ROTATIONAL SLIDES

MECHANISM: THE FAILURE SURFACE IS CURVED (CONCAVE

UPWARD). AS THE MATERIAL MOVES, THE BLOCK OF EARTH
TILTS BACKWARD TOWARD THE SLOPE.

COMMON MATERIALS: THESE ARE TYPICAL IN

HOMOGENOUS MATERIALS LIKE GAULT CLAY.

KEY EXAMPLE: THE FOLKESTONE WARREN CASE STUDY IS

THE DEFINITIVE INVESTIGATION INTO THIS TYPE OF LARGE-
SCALE MOVEMENT.
TYPES OF LANDSLIDE
SUBMARINE LANDSLIDES (TURBIDITY
CURRENTS)

MECHANISM: THESE OCCUR UNDERWATER,

SPECIFICALLY DOWN CONTINENTAL SLOPES.
OFTEN TRIGGERED BY EARTHQUAKES

IMPACT: THEY ARE POWERFUL ENOUGH TO

CARVE OUT SUBMARINE CANYONS AND ARE
A MAJOR FACTOR IN UNDERWATER SEAFLOOR
MORPHOLOGY.
WHERE DO LANDSLIDES TYPICALLY OCCUR?

CONTINENTAL SLOPES (SUBMARINE) ENGINEERED EXCAVATIONS

LANDSLIDES ARE NOT RESTRICTED TO DRY LAND. HUMAN ACTIVITY CREATES "ARTIFICIAL"
THEY OCCUR FREQUENTLY ON THE STEEP ENVIRONMENTS FOR LANDSLIDES.
SLOPES OF THE CONTINENTAL SHELF.

TURBIDITY CURRENTS: THESE SUBMARINE ROAD CUTTINGS: REMOVING THE "TOE" OR

LANDSLIDES TRAVEL DOWN THE CONTINENTAL BASE OF A SLOPE FOR A ROAD CAN TRIGGER
SLOPE WITH ENOUGH FORCE TO CARVE OUT PROGRESSIVE FAILURE.
OPEN-CAST MINES: THESE REQUIRE CONSTANT
MASSIVE SUBMARINE CANYONS.
MONITORING OF SLOPE STABILITY TO PREVENT
SHEAR FAILURE OF THE ROCK AND SOIL
MATERIAL.
WHERE DO LANDSLIDES TYPICALLY OCCUR?

MOUNTAINOUS TERRAINS RESERVOIR MARGINS

ENGINEERING PROJECTS THAT INVOLVE
MOUNTAINS PROVIDE THE "GRAVITY-PRODUCED DAMMING WATER ARE HIGH-RISK ZONES.
STRESSES" NECESSARY FOR MOVEMENT.
LANDSLIDES OCCUR HERE WHEN THE PEAK PORE-WATER PRESSURE: FILLING A RESERVOIR
STRENGTH OF THE ROCK IS DEGRADED TOWARD RAISES GROUNDWATER LEVELS IN THE
ITS "ULTIMATE VALUE" BY WEATHERING. SURROUNDING HILLS. THIS REDUCES EFFECTIVE
STRESS, WEAKENING THE ROCK OR SOIL.
KEY EXAMPLE: TURTLE MOUNTAIN, CANADA,
SERVES AS A MAJOR EXAMPLE OF A MOUNTAIN THE RISK: AS SEEN AT VAJONT DAM, ITALY, THESE
SLIDE WHERE MASSIVE ROCK MASSES AREAS ARE PRONE TO CATASTROPHIC
EVENTUALLY OVERCOME INTERNAL RESISTANCE. TRANSLATIONAL SLIDES THAT CAN CAUSE
DISPLACEMENT WAVES.
 WHAT TYPE OF LANDSLIDE WHERE THE
FAILURE SURFACE IS CURVED (CONCAVE
UPWARD)?
ROTATIONAL
FAMOUS CASE STUDIES
[Link] VAJONT SLIDE (ITALY, 1963)
October 9, 1963
260 million cubic meters of rock broke off from the top of
Monte Toc, on the border between Veneto and Friuli Venezia
Giulia. It fell into the reservoir of the Vajont Dam, producing
an enormous wave of at least 50 million cubic meters of
water.
The dam, completed in 1959 and one of the biggest in the
world at the time.
Flooding destroyed several villages in the valley and killed
almost 2,000 people. A third of the population of
Longarone, the largest village downstream of the dam, THE VAJONT DAM BEFORE THE DISASTER (BEFORE 1963).
perished.
 FAMOUS CASE STUDIES

THE TOWN OF LONGARONE, ITALY, BEFORE THE LANDSLIDE, 1963. THE TOWN OF LONGARONE AFTER THE DAM WAS
OVERTOPPED BY A GIANT WAVE
FAMOUS CASE STUDIES
[Link] Turtle Mountain Slide (Frank Slide, Canada, 1903)
The Frank Slide Factors that may have caused the
A massive rockslide that buried part of the mining town of slide:
Frank in the District of Alberta of the North-West
Territories, Canada on April 29, 1903. 1. Unstable structural formation
Around 44 million cubic metres/110 million tonnes (120
million short tons) of limestone rock broke off of and slid 2. Weak internal structure of the mountain
down Turtle Mountain. (due to coal mining operations)
Witnesses reported that within 100 seconds the rock
reached up the opposing hills, obliterating the Canadian 3. Weather conditions (wet winter at night)
Pacific Railway (CPR) line and parts of the coal mine.
One of the largest landslides in Canadian history and
remains the deadliest, as between 70 and 90 died.
THE TOWN OF FRANK AND TURTLE MOUNTAIN ON APRIL 30, 1903, ONE DAY AFTER THE SLIDE
QUESTION
HOW MANY CUBIC
METERS OF ROCKS
FELL INTO THE
RESERVIOR
 260 MILLION
CUBIC METERS OF
ROCK
 THX... !
REFERENCES:

Das, B. M., & Sobhan, K. (2018). Geotechnical engineering.

Lutgens, F. K., Tarbuck, E. J., & Tasa, D. (2017). An introduction to physical geology (12th
ed.). Pearson.

MACARAYAN CORSELES BERBIGAL LOMOCSO