ENEL 676 – Module IV
Energy Storage
Keaton Wheeler, Ph.D., [Link].
[Link]@[Link]
1
Energy Storage Outline
Basics of energy storage.
Device characteristics.
Technology types.
Storage calculations
2
Energy Storage Introduction
Energy storage systems (ESSs)was traditionally used to save costs by dispatching energy during
on-peak periods and charging during off peak (when electricity is cheaper).
With the rise of renewable energy, ESSs have been deployed due to the intermittency of such
energy types.
ESSs are being investigated in great detail in research and are being deployed in many locations
around the world.
3
Energy Storage
Applications
There are six main applications for energy storage systems:
• Load leveling: load shifting from high peak to off peak, reduce system losses and congestion,
postpone investment in equipment upgrades.
• Peak shaving: Flatten peak demand which reduces peak demand charges.
• Frequency regulation: increases grid reliability, supports microgrids, reduces dependency on
additional generation.
• Capacity firming: Increases renewable reliability, supports grid frequency/voltage even when
renewables behave intermittently, enables grid code compliance.
• Power quality: protects loads from short duration events, can give reactive power compensation, can
perform harmonic filtration, can balance phase currents.
• Spinning reserve: minimizes power outage impacts, provides backup power.
4
Load Leveling
The ESS stores power when the system is lightly loaded
but delivers power when there is a period of high
demand. When there is a period of high demand the
ESS discharges which reduces the load on the network
hence reduces stress on existing generation sources.
This load is then shifted to periods where demand is
low. Essentially you are increasing your base load
power but are reducing your peak load.
Main benefits include postponement of grid upgrade
investment, reduction of grid congestions and time
shifting the load for renewables.
5
Peak Shaving
Peak shaving is very similar to load leveling however it
is used solely for the purpose of reducing the peak
load demand. This is typically applied to consumers
or private grid owners who are subject to peak
demand charges. By discharging the battery during
peak demand, the peak demand charge is reduced.
Main benefits include a reduction in peak demand
charges on a utility bill and utilities can reduce their
operational costs during peak demand periods.
6
Frequency Regulation
The ESS is charged to decrease the system
frequency and discharged to increase it. This is
often done in very small time frames during the
transient period of switching overcurrents,
transformer energization etc. This is an attractive
method of regulation as most ESSs have a capacity
for rapid response times and do not rely on
spinning generators. This is a form of implementing
artificial inertia.
Main benefits include increased reliability and a
reduction in reliance on additional generation.
7
Capacity Firming
ESSs can be deployed to maintain specific levels of
generation in the presence of intermittent sources
such as wind and solar. The ESS will smooth out the
output and will control the ramp rate (kW/min) to
prevent rapid voltage changes and large power swings
which could cause additional issues.
The main benefits include increased grid reliability,
improved renewable source efficiency and easier grid
code compliance.
8
Power Quality
ESSs can prevent short duration events from
affecting the quality of power delivered to
downstream loads. In addition an ESSs reactive
power capabilities can provide voltage support.
Main benefits include harmonic mitigation (through
active filtration and harmonic compensation) and
load balancing whereby the phase currents can be
balanced.
9
Spinning Reserve
ESSs have the capacity to respond within
milliseconds and discharge to maintain network
continuity while back-up generation is started and
operating. This enables optimum operating
conditions for generators without the need for idle
capacity via spinning reserves essentially eliminating
the need for backup generators to run idle. This does
require the ESS to maintain its charge at a level such
that it can respond to a power outage.
Main benefits include minimized impact from power
outages and a reduction in idle back up generation.
10
ESS Characteristics: Self-
Discharge Time
Self-discharge time is the amount of time for a fully charged non-interconnected ESS to reach a pre-
specified depth of discharge (DOD).
The DOD is defined as a percentage of the ESSs useful capacity. As an example if an ESSs current
status was 70% DOD it means that only 30% of the ESSs capacity remains for use.
The relationship between the DOD and self-discharge time is typically non-linear hence self-discharge
times are required to be measured for comparison to a uniform DOD.
11
ESS Characteristics: Unit
Size
Unit size is a description of the scale of the technology employed in the ESS.
In the case of utility shaping, we require a moderate self-discharge time but the unit sizes are
required to be large.
Applications such as power quality are far less dependent on self-discharge time but they do
require a moderate unit size.
Distributed grid and automotive applications require moderate self-discharge times and unit
sizes.
12
ESS Characteristics:
Efficiency
Efficiency is the ratio of energy output over energy input for an ESS.
An important factor to consider when measuring the efficiency is the type of
energy required for the input and the type of energy required for the output.
When measuring the efficiency, you need to account for conversion equipment,
transformation and internal impedances etc.
13
ESS Characteristics: Cycle
Life
Cycle life is the number of
consecutive charge-discharge
cycles that an ESS can sustain
whilst maintaining the
installation’s specifications within
specific ranges.
Cycle life is specified against a
chosen DOD depending on what
the application is.
14
ESS Characteristics:
Specific Energy
Specific energy measure the weight of a technology.
The measurement is done in units of energy per mass. For example MJ/kg.
This means that the higher the specific energy, the lighter the device material.
Specific energy needs are dependent on the application. For example ESSs for
the automotive industry require high specific energy as the ESS needs to be
light weight for maximum energy output.
Specific energy in grid applications is typically ignored except for civil design of
the housing units for the ESS.
15
ESS Characteristics:
Energy Density
Energy density measures how much physical space the technology requires to
occupy.
This measurement is done in units of energy per volume. For example MJ/m3.
As such the higher the energy density the smaller the device is.
This again is more important for automotive applications and relatively ignored
in utility applications unless space becomes a legitimate constraint.
16
ESS Technologies
• Ultra-Capacitors.
• Superconducting Magnets.
• Batteries.
• Pumped Hydro.
• Compressed Air.
• Flywheels.
17
Ultracapacitors
Are also known as supercapacitors.
These devices employ a thin electrolyte to increase the energy density of the
ESS.
This electrolyte is either organic or aqueous.
Aqueous UCs are designed to operate over a large temperature range but will
have a lower density than organic designs.
Electrodes are made up of porous carbon which increases the surface area of
the electrodes hence increasing the energy density when compared to a typical
capacitor.
UCs have the ability to effectively equalize voltage variations through a quick
discharge which makes them suitable for power quality management
applications where voltage is required to be regulated.
18
Ultracapacitors
UCs also have the capacity to work concurrently with batteries and fuel cells to provide relief
during peak load demands.
This helps extend the life of batteries and fuel cells which reduces lifetime costs.
The advantage of UCs is that they have a very high cycle life (greater than 500,000 cycles) and a 10
to 12 year life span.
Their main limitations are they have an inability to maintain charge voltage over a significant period
of time hence can lose up to 10% of their charge per day.
The energy stored in a UC can be defined as:
1
𝐸𝑈𝐶 = 𝐶𝑉 2
2
Where C is capacitance (F), V is voltage and E is energy (J).
19
Superconducting Magnets
In superconducting magnets (SCMs) the coils carry a current to produce a
magnetic field. This current requires a voltage to be applied at the coil
terminals.
The relation between the coil current and voltage is given by:
𝑑𝑖
𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼 + 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
V is the voltage at the terminal, I is the coil current, R and L are the resistance
and inductance of the coil.
In order to store the energy in steady state the inductance of the coil must be
zero. Hence the voltage required to circulate the current is given by V=RI.
20
Superconducting Magnets
In superconducting materials the resistance will drop to zero once it hits its
critical temperature.
When the material is below the critical temperature there is no need for a
voltage to circulate the current in the coils hence the coil is able to be
shortened.
Current will flow through the could indefinitely hence the energy is stored in the
coil also indefinitely.
This means that the coil is in a superconducting state.
21
Superconducting Magnets
The energy stored in the magnetic field of a coil can be defined by:
1 2
𝐸 = 𝐵 /𝜇 (𝑖𝑛 𝐽/𝑚3 )
2
Also
1 2
𝐸= 𝐼 𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝐽)
2
Where B is the magnetic field density produced by the coil (T), µ is the magnetic
permeability (H/m) and L is the coil inductance (H).
SCMs typically have an efficiency of around 95% with a long life span of up to 30
years. They also charge and discharge quickly.
22
Electrochemical Storage:
Battery
There are many types on the market including:
• Lead-Acid (Pb-acid).
• Nickel Cadmium (NiCd).
• Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH).
• Lithium-Ion (LI-ion) (very popular right now).
• Lithium-Polymer (Li-poly).
• Zinc-air (Zn-air).
23
Batteries
Batteries store energy in an electrochemical form.
They typically have a round trip efficiency around 85-90%.
They are available as Primary or Secondary batteries.
Primary batteries convert chemical energy into electrical energy. The electrochemical reaction is not
reversible so it is only used in applications where high energy density is needed and it is acceptable to
only be used once.
Secondary batteries are rechargeable and can be recharged through injection of DC current from an
external source (e.g. the electrical grid).
The capacity of the battery is given in Ampere hours or kW/MW hours
24
Batteries
The state of charge of a battery can be defined by:
𝐴ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦
𝑆𝑂𝐶 =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
25
Pumped Hydro
Pumped hydro utilises two water reservoirs that are separated vertically.
The energy is stored through moving the water from the lower to the higher reservoir. Energy is the
discharged by allowing the water to flow back down to the lower reservoir.
This is mainly used in electric utility shaping as the discharge times range from several hours to a few days.
During off peak periods, electric pumps are used to move the water to the upper reservoir. When it is
required the water flow is reversed which causes turbines to spin hence generating electricity.
The stored energy is given by:
𝐸𝑠 = 𝑉𝑑𝑔ℎ
Where V is the water volume (m3), d is the water density (1000 kg/m3), g is gravity (9.8 m/s2) and h is the
elevation difference between the reservoirs (also called head). The Energy is given in Joules. 1 Watt is 1
J/second.
Efficiencies are typically around 80%.
26
Compressed Air
Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is a hybrid storage/generator technology.
During off peak electricity a motor is powered to drive compressors which force air into an
underground storage reservoir.
During peak demand periods the compressed air is returned to the surface and heated by natural
gas in combustors. It is run through high-pressure and low-pressure expanders to power a
generator which produces electricity.
The efficiency of such as system is limited by the heat energy loss that occur during the
compression of the air.
CAES facilities are incapable of operation without combustion as the exhaust air would exit at
low temperatures which may cause problems with icing.
27
Compressed Air
If we consider P and V to represent the air pressure and volume respectively. If
we also consider the air compression from P1 to P2 to follow gas laws then the
work done during compression is equal to the energy stored in the compressed
air. This is given by:
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝐸𝑠 =
𝑛−1
The temperature at the end of compression can be expressed as:
𝑛−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑛
=
𝑇1 𝑃1
The isentropic value of n for air is 1.4. Under normal conditions n is 1.3.
28
Flywheels
Flywheels consist of a rotating cylinder supported on a stator by magnetically
levitated bearings.
The flywheel is typically operated in a low vacuum environment to reduce drag
and improve overall efficiency.
The flywheel is connected to a motor/generator mounted onto the stator which
is connected to the utility via power electronics devices such as inverters.
The energy stored in a flywheel is given by:
1
𝐸𝑠 = 𝐼𝜔2
2
Where I is the flywheel’s moment of inertia (kgm2) and ω is the angular velocity
(s-2).
I is proportional to the flywheels mass.
29
Flywheels
The moment of inertia of a mass is defined by:
𝐼 = 𝑘𝑚𝑅2
Where k is the inertial constant, m is the mass, R is the radius of the rotating
mass.
If a flywheel is designed with a thin rim type of configuration that has an inner
and outer radius of R1 and R2, the maximum energy that can be stored for an
allowable rotor tip velocity is:
2
𝑅1
𝐸𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾1 𝑉 2 1 +
𝑅2
Where K1 is the proportionality constant.
30
Flywheels
The maximum energy stored can also be determined by:
𝐸𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾2 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝜌
Where K2 is the second proportionality constant, σmax is the maximum allowable hoop stress and
ρ is the density of the rotor material.
Good flywheels have high σmax/ρ ratios for high specific energy and high E/ρ ratios for rigidity where
E is Young’s modulus of elasticity.
Main benefits of flywheels is they have high energy storage capacity per unit weight of volume,
high DOD, long life cycles, high peak power capability and high efficiency.
They are often used in applications that require a rapid amount of energy for short duration. An
example is a crane connected to a weak grid.
31
References
1. A. Ter-Gazarian, Energy Storage for Power Systems, 2nd ed., Peter Peregrinus
Ltd., 2011.
2. ABB, "Energy Storage Modules - ESM," 12 October 2017. [Online]. Available:
[Link]
gy_Storage_Modules_Presentation.pdf. [Accessed 28 September 2018].
32