ENEL 676 – Module III

Wind Part 2
Keaton Wheeler, Ph.D., [Link].
[Link]@[Link]

1
Wind Part 2 Outline
Wind turbine types (DFIG, FFC etc.)
Review of induction generators
Induction generators in wind turbines
Reactive power in wind turbines
Converters and their ratings
Short circuit contributions from wind

2
 Type 1: SCIG
Type 1 turbines were the first generation utility-sized generators and had a fixed speed turbine with a squirrel
cage induction generator (SCIG).
Electricity is generated when the rotor is driven above synchronous speed.
The difference between the synchronous speed and operating speed is measured through its slip. When the
slip is negative, the wind turbine is in generating mode.
Type 1 turbines normally operate between 0 and -1%.

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 Type 2
Type 2 generators are a variable slip generator that is a wound-rotor induction generator with a variable
resistor connected in series to the rotor winding.
The external resistor is controlled by a high-frequency switch. Below the rated power the resistor will be
inactive so the system will operate as a conventional induction generator.
Then above rated power; the resistor control permits slip variation so that variable speed operation is
possible for speed ranges of roughly 10%.
When the blade pitch angle is kept constant at zero degrees, the rotor speed (hence slip) will vary with the
wind speed.
Note that operation at higher slips will cause significant losses due to the rotor resistance hence heat loss
may be excessive.

4
 Type 2
If the blade pitch angle is controlled to keep the rotor deviations within a small range from the rated slip
then the losses from the rotor resistance is able to be minimized.

5
 Type 3: DFIG
Type 3 wind turbine generators are implemented via a doubly fed induction generator (DFIG). This is a variable
speed generator where the rotor speed is allowed to vary within a slip range of ±0.3.
This means the power converter can be sized to around 30% of the rated power.
The stator of the induction machine is directly connected to the grid and the wound rotor windings are connected
to the grid via slip-rings and an indirect AC-AC converter system to control the rotor and grid currents.
The AC-AC converter system consists of two three phase pulse width modulated (PWM) voltage sourced
converters (VSCs) connected by a DC bus.

6
 Type 3: DFIG
A line inductor and an AC filter are used at the DC/AC convertor to improve the power quality.
The control of the DFIG can be realized by controlling the AC/DC and DC/AC converter using vector control
techniques.
A key function of the AC/DC converter is to control the active and reactive powers delivered to the grid, and to
follow a tracking characteristic to adjust the generator speed for optimal power generation (wind speed
dependent).
A key function of the DC/AC converter is to keep the DC bus voltage constant and to support the grid with
reactive power during system faults.

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 Type 3: DFIG
Type 3 DFIG turbines are the most popular and are widely used today.

8
 Type 4: FFC
Is a variable speed turbine implement with full power conversion. It is also known as a full frequency
converter (FFC) type turbine.
They are rising in popularity due to their ability to meet more stringent grid codes easier when compared to
DFIG type turbines. This is attributed to full control capability for real and reactive power output, with the
generator decoupled from the grid.
FFC turbines employ a permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) that has a large number of
poles. This is also known as a direct drive wind turbine generator where the synchronous machine rotates
at the slow turbine speed and generators electricity with a frequency well below that of the grid.

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 Type 4: FFC
The PMSG is connected to the grid through an AC-AC converter system.
The PMSG side of the converter (AC/DC) can either be diode rectified or a VSC (dependent on the size
of the wind turbine).
The DC/AC converter is typically a VSC.
Similar to the DFIG, control of the FFC turbine is realized by controlling the AC/DC and DC/AC
converter using vector control techniques. The AC/DC converter controls the active power delivered by
the PMSG and follows a tracking characteristic to adjust the PMSG speed for optimal power generation
depending on the wind speed.
The DC/AC converter maintains the DC bus voltage at its desired level and also controls the reactive
power delivered to the grid.

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Type 4: FFC

11
 Review of Induction
Generators
Commonly available three phase cage type induction motors can be used as generators if reactive
power is supplied to it to produce a magnetic field.
This machine is significantly cheaper than a synchronous generator as it almost needs no maintenance,
is available on the market at low power levels and can operate at variable speeds with a constant
frequency.
Due to this, induction generators are usually preferred for small and medium scale power generation.

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 Squirrel Cage Induction
Generators
Squirrel cage or wound rotor induction machines are typically operated as motors but can also be
used as generators.
For an induction motor the rotor speed can be obtained via:
𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁𝑚
𝑠=
𝑁𝑠
Where s is the slip.
120𝑓
𝑁𝑚 = 𝑁𝑠 1 − 𝑠 = (1 − 𝑠)
𝑃
The speed of an induction generator can be changed while the frequency is constant.

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Operating Modes

14
 The Torque-Speed
Characteristic

This is for a constant stator voltage and constant frequency.

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 The Equivalent Circuit

The rotor impedances have been referred to the stator. The rotor slip is s.
R1, X1, R2, X2 are much smaller than Rm and Xm. During a running condition, the
operating slip is typically below 0.05 hence R2/s is quite large.

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 The Thevenin Equivalent
Circuit

The electromagnetic torque is given by:

2
3𝐼22 𝑅2 3 𝑉𝑡ℎ 𝑅2
𝑇𝑒 = = 2
𝜔𝑠 𝑠 𝜔𝑠 𝑅 𝑠
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑠2 + 𝑋𝑡ℎ + 𝑋2 2

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 DFIG Control
External resistors in the figure dissipate power as heat. If an adjustable voltage or current source can be used
to replace the resistors, power can be absorbed or injected into the rotor circuit.
By controlling the injected voltage/current in the rotor circuit, the operating speed of the generator or motor
can be controlled.

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DFIG Control
Another control method in the case of wound
rotor induction generators is an external source
is connected to the rotor windings through the
slip rings. By controlling the magnitude, phase
and frequency of the rotor supply, the speed can
be controlled while absorbing the slip power
normally lost in the rotor winding resistance.

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DFIG Equivalent Circuit with Injected
Voltage at Rotor Frequency
The circuit shows the actual rotor winding equivalent circuit (without referring or change of frequency).
The rotor injected phasor is Vr. It has a magnitude and a phase angle with respect to the stator phase
voltage.

𝑃𝑠𝑙 = 3 𝐼𝑟 2 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐸 3𝑉𝑟 𝐼𝑟∗

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DFIG Equivalent Circuit with Injected
Voltage at Stator Frequency

2
𝑅𝑟 𝑉𝑟 ∗ 𝑃𝑠𝑙
𝑃𝑔 = 3 𝐼𝑟 + 𝑅𝐸 3 𝐼𝑟 =
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

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DFIG Equivalent Circuit with Injected
Voltage at Stator Frequency
𝑅𝑟 1−𝑠 𝑉𝑟 1−𝑠
= 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑟 = 𝑉𝑟 + 𝑉𝑟
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

Due to mech. Actual Due to mech.

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 DFIG Full Equivalent Circuit
Referred to the Stator

𝑅2 = 𝑎2 𝑅𝑟 , 𝑋2 = 𝑎2 𝑋𝑟 , 𝑉2 = 𝑎𝑉𝑟 , 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑟 /𝑎
The rotor equivalent circuit at the stator frequency has been referred to the
stator winding by using the stator to rotor turns ratio a.

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 DFIG Full Equivalent Circuit
Referred to the Stator

The stator terminal power:

2
𝑅𝑟 𝑉2 ∗ 2
𝑅𝑟 𝑉𝑟 ∗
𝑃𝑔 = 3 𝐼2 + 𝑅𝐸 3 𝐼 = 3 𝐼𝑟 + 𝑅𝐸 3 𝐼
𝑠 𝑠 2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑟
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 The Real Power Equations
Rotor Copper (Cu) loss:
𝑃𝑟,𝐶𝑢 = 3 𝐼𝑟 2 𝑅2 = 3 𝐼𝑟 2 𝑅𝑟
The power absorbed by the external source in the rotor circuit :
𝑃2 = 𝑅𝐸 3𝑉2 𝐼2∗ = 𝑅𝐸{3𝑉𝑟 𝐼𝑟∗ }
The slip power:
𝑃𝑠𝑙 = 𝑃𝑟,𝐶𝑢 + 𝑃2 = 3 𝐼𝑟 2 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝐸 3𝑉2 𝐼2∗

𝑃𝑠𝑙
𝑃𝑔 = ⇒ 𝑃𝑠𝑙 = 𝑠𝑃𝑔
𝑠
The power converted to mechanical:
𝑃𝑚 = 𝑃𝑔 − 𝑃𝑠𝑙 = 1 − 𝑠 𝑃𝑔
The sign convention of the above equations is so that all of them are positive for
a grid connected induction motor. For the generator action, P1<0;Pg<0;Pm<0.
Losses are always positive.

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 Converter Power Ratings
The biggest advantage of the DFIG is that the power rating of the converters is
only s times the power rating of the stator.
Since the maximum slip with this method of control is about 20%, the power
ratings of converters is roughly 20% of those who would be needed if a SCIG is
used. This is a significant cost saving.
However, SCIG with such converters can operate over the full speed range
required.

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 Reactive Power
Induction Generators consume reactive power due to their magnetizing inductance (mainly). Two
leakage inductances also consume some reactive power.
The reactive power is usually supplied from the stator source in the case of cage-type induction
generators.
With the wound-rotor generator, Q can also be supplied from the rotor side.

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 Reactive Power
The stator terminal power factor can be kept at unity by supplying all of the reactive power from the rotor
side.
The advantage of this is the effective reactive power supplied to the stator is equal to 1/s times the actual
reactive power injected into the rotor windings. Hence the amount of reactive power injected is much less
than the effective value.
Qm=reactive power consumption of the generator.
Q1=reactive power supplied from the stator side.
Q2=s(Qm-Qs)=reactive power supplied from the rotor side.

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 Reactive Power Example
A wind turbine feeds power to a 3-phase, 11kV, 60 Hz grid through a wound-rotor induction generator
operating with slip-power control. The data of the system are as given below.
Induction Machine: 3-phase, 11kV, 50 Hz, 4-pole, delta-connected, Per-phase magnetizing inductance
referred to the stator= 7 H, Per-phase rotor winding resistance referred to the stator= 30 Ω, Stator to rotor
turns ratio= 3: 1

Gear Box: Power efficiency = 85%, Speed Ratio = 65.

The slip power of the generator is controlled so that the turbine operates with a TSR of 5.5 and the power
factor at the stator terminals is unity.

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 Reactive Power Example
Determine:
(i) Operating slip of the generator.
(ii) Mechanical Power converted to electrical form.
(iii) The magnitude, phase and the frequency of the phase voltage injected into the rotor by taking the
stator terminal voltage as the reference phasor.
(iv) Real and reactive power supplied by the rotor side converter.
(v) Real power supplied to the grid by assuming no losses in the converters and in the stator winding.

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 Reactive Power Example
(i) Slip of the generator:

𝜔𝑠 − 𝜔𝑚 4𝜋𝑓 4 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 60
𝑠= , 𝜔𝑠 = = = 188.5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜔𝑠 𝑃 4
The TSR=5.5=tip-speed/wind-speed.
𝜔𝑡 𝐷 2
= 𝑣. 𝑇𝑆𝑅 ⇒ 𝜔𝑡 = 10.43 ∗ 5.5 ∗ = 2.295 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2 50
Speed conversion through the gear box:
𝜔𝑚 = 65 ∗ 𝜔𝑡 = 65 ∗ 2.295 = 149.175 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

188.5 − 149.175
𝑠= = 0.21
188.5
Hence the machine is in sub-synchronous generation mode.

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 Reactive Power Example
(ii) Mechanical Power converted to electrical form:

1
𝑃𝑚 = −η𝑔 𝑃𝑡 = −η𝑔 η𝑡 𝑃𝑤 = −η𝑔 η𝑡 ( 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 )
2

1 𝜋𝐷2 3
𝑃𝑚 = − η𝑔 η𝑡 𝜌 𝑣
2 4

1 𝜋502 3
𝑃𝑚 = − 0.85 0.45 1.0926 10.43 = −465.54 𝑘𝑊
2 4

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 Reactive Power Example
(iii) Rotor injected voltage:
Delta connected stator winding:
𝑉𝑝ℎ = 𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 11𝑘𝑉

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 Reactive Power Example
(iii) Rotor injected voltage:

𝑃𝑚 = 𝑃𝑔 − 𝑃𝑠𝑙 = 1 − 𝑠 𝑃𝑔

𝑃𝑚 465540
𝑃𝑔 = =− = −588250𝑊
1−𝑠 1 − 0.21

Considering there are no stator losses, P1=Pg=-588250 W

588250
𝑃1 = 3𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜙1 ⇒ 𝐼1 = − = −17.83𝐴
3 ∗ 11000 ∗ 1

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 Reactive Power Example
(iii) Rotor injected voltage:

𝑉1 11000
𝐼𝑚 = = = −𝑗4.17𝐴
𝑗𝑋𝑚 𝑗2𝜋 ∗ 60 ∗ 7

𝐼2 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼𝑚 = −17.83 + 𝑗4.17 (𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 18.3 𝐴)

𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑅2 −17.83 + 𝑗4.17 30
𝑉1 = + ⇒ 11000 − = 13564 − 𝑗11600
𝑠 𝑠 0.21

𝑉2 = 𝑠 ∗ 𝑉1 = 0.21 ∗ 13564 − 𝑗11600 = 2890 < −11.78

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 Reactive Power Example
(iv) Complex power absorbed by the rotor converter:
𝑆𝑟 = 3𝑉𝑟 𝐼𝑟∗ = 3𝑉2 𝐼2∗ = 3 ∗ 2890 < −11.78 ∗ −17.83 − 𝑗4.17 = −158735
< −1.38

𝑆𝑟 = −158689 + 𝑗37821

Real power and reactive power that are injected into the rotor winding converter
are -158.7 kW and -37.82 kVAR

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 Reactive Power Example
(v) Real power drawn from the grid:
𝑃𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑟 = −588250 + 158689 = −429561

This is also equal to the sum of the power converted to mechanical form and
the rotor copper losses.

𝑃𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 = 𝑃𝑚 + 𝑃2,𝐶𝑢 = −465540 + 3𝐼22 𝑅2

𝑃𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 = −465540 + 3 18.3 2 30 = 435378 𝑊

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 Faults in Power Systems
Faults can occur in numerous locations within an electrical network.
There are four fault types: three-phase, Line-to-line, double line-to-ground, line-to-ground.
We will consider a three-phase fault for now.

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 Three-Phase Faults in R-L
Circuits
Consider the simple R-L circuit below as a representation of a power system.

The fault here is represented by a switch. The fault current contribution from
the generator can be expressed as:

𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑔 = 𝐿 + 𝑖𝑅
𝑑𝑡
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 Three-Phase Faults in R-L
Circuits
𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑔 = 𝐿 + 𝑖𝑅
𝑑𝑡
In this equation, vg is the instantaneous generator terminal voltage while R and
L are the line resistance and inductance.

Solving this equation we get the following expression:

𝑉𝑔 −1
𝑋 𝑅
−𝐿 𝑡 𝑉𝑔 −1
𝑋
𝑖 = sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 − tan − 𝑒 sin 𝛼 − tan
𝑍 𝑅 𝑍 𝑅

Where Vg is the peak generator voltage, Z is the overall line impedance (𝑍 =

40
 Three-Phase Faults in R-L
Circuits
𝑉𝑔 −1
𝑋 𝑅
− 𝑡 𝑉𝑔 −1
𝑋
𝑖 = sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 − tan − 𝑒 𝐿 sin 𝛼 − tan
𝑍 𝑅 𝑍 𝑅

The equation can be split into two components. The first component is a simple
stationary waveform that varies over time in a sinusoidal manner. The second
decays exponentially with an R/L time constant. The second component
represents the DC offset current.

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 Three-Phase Faults in R-L
Circuits
𝑉𝑔 −1
𝑋 𝑅
− 𝑡 𝑉𝑔 −1
𝑋
𝑖 = sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 − tan − 𝑒 𝐿 sin 𝛼 − tan
𝑍 𝑅 𝑍 𝑅

We can determine the steady state fault current by making the time tend
towards infinity in the above equation. From that we get a steady state RMS
current of:
𝑉𝑔
𝐼𝐹 = ( )/𝑍
2
You can see that the fault current is very dependent on the line impedance.
Obviously, if the fault occurs closer to the generator terminals we get a larger
fault contribution from the generator.

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 Type 3 Wind Turbine Fault
Currents
As mentioned previous: Type 3 wind turbines are doubly fed induction
generator (DFIG) type turbines. The equivalent circuit can be given by:

This is referred to the stator side of the turbine.

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 Type 3 Wind Turbine Fault
Currents
In DFIG type turbines a crowbar system is used to protect the power electronics
converter from overvoltage and thermal breakdowns. There is also dynamic
braking on the DC bus so that the DC bus voltage is limited.

When a fault occurs the rotor windings are basically short circuited by a
crowbar resistance. As such the transient time constant needs to be adjusted:

′
𝐿′𝑟
𝑇𝑟.𝐶𝐵 =
𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐶𝐵

Where RCB is the crowbar resistance.

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 Type 3 Wind Turbine Fault
Currents
From here we can modify the maximum fault current equation for Type 3 wind
turbines. This is expressed as:

∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
2𝑉𝑠 − ′ − ′
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑇𝑆 − 1−𝜎 𝑒 𝑇𝑟.𝐶𝐵
2
𝑋𝑆′ + 𝑅𝐶𝐵
2

ΔT is the time after the fault when the current first reaches its peak.

When RCB is much bigger than Rr we get a small [Link]’ meaning that the first peak
tends to occur when ΔT tends towards zero.

45
 Type 3 Wind Turbine Fault
Currents
When RCB is much bigger than Rr we get a small [Link]’ meaning that the first peak
tends to occur when ΔT tends towards zero. Hence we can approximate the
peak fault current contribution from a DFIG wind turbine as:

2𝑉𝑠
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
𝑋𝑆′ + 𝑅𝐶𝐵
2

46
 Type 4 Wind Turbine Fault
Currents
As mentioned in previous: Type 4 full frequency converter (FFC) type turbines that are direct drive
connected to a permanent magnet synchronous generator.

In this case the fault current contribution from a type 4 turbine is limited to its rated current or
slightly above. This is due to the power converter which is designed to limit the fault current
contribution or risk thermal overload on the converter components. It is common practice to size
the converter to at least 10% greater than the rating of the turbine.

This means that if a fault occurs on the grid, the generator is isolated from the grid through the
converter hence the contribution is limited from 1 to 1.1 per unit. In this course assume the
contribution is 1.1 per unit.

47
 Type 5 Wind Turbine Fault
Currents
This has not been previously mentioned however there has been recent development of variable speed
wind turbines with synchronous machines. These have been classed as type 5 turbines.
They are still fairly new so are not widely integrated but are worth discussing.
This is made possible due to advances in hydro-dynamic torque converters. The torque converter
allows decoupling of the variable speed mechanical output of a turbine gearbox from the generator. It
allows the synchronous generator to operate at constant speed hence no power electronics converter
is required.
In type 5 turbines, the fault current is merely the same as a typical synchronous generator.
We do not go into this in this course as synchronous generators are covered extensively in literature.

48
 References
1. G. M. Masters and K. F. Hsu, Renewable and Efficient Electric Power
Systems, Wiley-IEEE Press, 3rd Edition, 2023.
2. V. Gevorgian and E. Muljadi, “Wind Power Plant Short Circuit Contribution
for Different Fault and Wind Turbine Topologies,” in International
Workshop on Large-Scale Integration of Wind Power into Power Systems
as well as on Transmission Networks for Offshore Wind Power Plants,
Quebec 2010.
3. M. Ezzat, M. Benbouzid, S. M. Muyeen and L. Harnefors, “Low-Voltage
Ride-Through Techniques for DFIG-Based Wind Turbines: State-of-the-Art
Review and Future Trends,” in IECON 2013 - 39th Annual Conference of
the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Vienna 2013.

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